INTERACTION FORMAT OF ORGANIZATION COMMUNICATION
INTERACTION
FORMAT OF ORGANIZATION COMMUNICATION
BY
Ifedayo Akinwalere
August 9, 2017
Federal University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta
College of Agricultural Management
and Rural Development,
Department of Communication and
General Studies.
Course Title: Advanced Organizational Communication
Course Code: COM 912
Topic: Interaction Format of Organisation
Communication
Candidate: Akinwalere,
Ifedayo
PG15/0039
Course
Lecturer:
Prof. H. Bodunde

August,
2017.
INTERACTION
FORMAT OF ORGANISATION COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Communication
is derived from the Latin words communis,
and communicare which translate as common and to share respectively. This
means that communication aims at the sharing of information, ideas and messages
and making them universal. It would appear that this sense of sharing is easy
to achieve in human interaction. This is not always the case in the complex
business world (Ogbulogo, 2004). Communication can also mean two-way process of
reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange
(encode-decode) information, news, ideas and feelings but also create and share
meaning.
Communication
can be defined as the exchange of information, ideas, thoughts, opinions etc
accompanied by full and correct understanding between one person or persons or
one side and another person or persons on the other side. In other words,
communication is effective if the receiver has the same impression or
perception as the sender intended him or her to receive. In this wise, one can
communicate only in the recipient’s or receiver’s language or in his or her
terms and the terms have to be experienced based. There has to be feedback to ascertain the
degree of understanding on the part of the recipient. The communication course
is not complete until it is certain that the other person (receiver)
understands. This does not mean that the two parties have to reach agreement.
In
general, communication is a means of connecting people or places. In organization,
communication is a key function of management. An organization cannot operate
without communication between levels, departments and employees. Ogbulogo
(2004) defined Communication as a process of transmitting messages from a
source to receivers using a signaling system. Communication is simply the act
of transferring information from one place to another. Communication can be spoken
or verbal communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or television and other
media. Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress or act -
even our scent.
Communication
facilitates sharing of common experiences with others. Communication
is a polymorphous concept; as a result its definitions vary with its diverse
forms.
It involves sharing of an idea, thought, feeling or information in order to
make things of common knowledge. Thus, the scope of communication is very wide.
Communication is not a static act but a dynamic process, which is continuous in
nature and vital in every human activity. It involves the usage of a channel.
This channel could be signs, symbols or verbal/written language. For
communication to be complete and effective it has to achieve the desired
objectives as intended by the communicator and there must be feedback. According to Soola
(2000) in Obe (2008), communication is the process by which any person or a
group shares and impacts information with/to another person (or group) so that
both people (and groups) clearly understand one another.
Essentially, five steps
are involved in effective communication process:
- The sender has an idea.
- The idea becomes a message.
- The message is transmitted.
- The receiver gets the message.
- The receiver reacts and sends feedback to the sender.
Moemeka
(1994) cited in (Ajibade, 2003) argued that communication is not synonymous
with the mechanical transfer of facts and figures (i.e. information
dissemination).To him, communication is not talking at people;
instead, it is an interactive process that involves talking with people. The
element of feedback (i.e. response of the receiver) is very crucial in any act
of communication because communication involves sending forth and back of
message between the sender and the receiver. Communication is an ongoing
process. Moemeka further explained that there is no permanent sender and no
permanent receiver in the process of communication, as the role keeps changing
“depending on who is talking and who is listening at any given time.
Many
businesses and government programmes have failed in the past because of the
failure to recognise the role and importance of communication. An
organization’s effectiveness hinges on good communication and so does the
effectiveness of groups and individuals inside the organisation. Groups are able to achieve their goals and
perform at a very high level only when group members communicate as needed. Similarly, individual learning, motivation,
and job satisfaction centre on good communication. To communicate effectively,
it is essential to understand that communicating can be very complex
process. Each communication is different
and will call for a unique response, which is why it is so important to have a
solid understanding of the communication fundamentals and tools (Holmes, 2004).
Organization
Organization,
according to an anonymous author, is a social unit of people, systematically
structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals on a continuing
basis. All organizations have a management structure that determines
relationships between functions and positions, and subdivides and delegates
roles, responsibilities, and authority to carry out defined tasks.
Organizations are open systems in that they affect and are affected by the
environment beyond their boundaries.
Organisational
Communication
Organizational
communication can be defined as the communication that takes place within and
among organizations. Organization is combination of groups formed in such a way
that large tasks may be accomplished. Organization communication can either be
a written or oral or both but usually, it is written (Daramola, 2012). That is,
all the communication activity taking place in organization today such as sending
emails, phone call, whatsapp group chat, writing memos, talking on the phone,
having meetings, teleconferencing, video conferencing, speeches, presentations,
and so on. Organization can be viewed as something like a container, and
communication is what flows within the container. If this metaphor is extended,
it can be seen how communicating is then shaped by the structure of the
organization, in the same way liquids take the shape of their physical
containers. And by the “shape” of the container can mean the physical shape of
the organization. The key here is that the organization is seen as something
that exists separately from communication. Communication is “organizational”
when it happens within these separate structures called organizations. This
relates to what scholars call an informational view of communication, because
communication is all about transmitting information throughout the “container”
of the organization, and “ineffective communication” or “communication breakdowns”
are seen as technical problems (Koschmann, 2012).
Ogbulogo (2004) stated that it has
been strongly speculated that more than 80% of the Executive time is spent on
communication within and outside the organisation. Communication is employed
for task co-ordination, problem solving, and information sharing and conflict
resolution. It has also been pointed out
that any movement from the bottom to the top requires a great ability to reach
others through the spoken or written word.
Indeed, the further one moves away from manual job, the greater the need
to convey thoughts, desires and attitudes in language. Thus, one of the most desire skills for the
efficient executive is the ability for self expression. The Executive,
according to Ogbulogo, must be able to speak and write clearly forcefully to be
able to obtain maximum results. He
should be able to inculcate in his subordinates the skills for effective
communication and a desire for feedback.
The Executive should be able to evaluate a great deal of articles,
letters, proposals, reports and presentations for his organisation and
prospective clients. Communication is essential for the survival of any human
system. Effective communication evidently determines the success or failure of
the organizational goals and objectives. For any organization to achieve
optimum output, its communication must be effective and dynamic. The organization
must strengthen its communication network for better participatory decision
making, develop more open interaction among the employees and create mutual
confidence among workers, because the effectiveness of any superior manager
depends largely on how well he communicates and relates with the subordinates
and even his peers in the organization. Communication as a process is the
transmission of messages from a source to a receiver.
Every
organisation has a life. It passes through the normal life cycle-birth, growth
and decline and perhaps “death”. Through the process of effective communication
in management, the life of an organisation can be prolonged indefinitely.
Therefore, communication in the right direction and at the right time is of
tremendous importance to all existing organisations. Organization sets itself
specific objectives in order to meet the better business success, and to gain
comparative advantage over the competitor. For these objectives to be achieved,
of crucial importance is organizational communication per se which implies
communication among employees, as well as communication between different
hierarchic levels in the same organization.
Business
communication is usually divided to the one within the organization, and the
one outside the organization. Communication is the process of conveying the
message from one person to the other (Weick and Browing, 1986) cited in Turkalj
and Fosić (n.d), however it is very important that the receiver of the
information understands the content and the meaning of the message. The
function of communication in the organisation is to connect the employees of
that organisation in order to reach mutual goals.
THE PURPOSE OF
COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
Communication
in organisation is meant to inform, teach or explain, transact, reassuring,
convince and persuade. Communicating to inform is aimed at changing
understanding of situation and at making people aware of new development and
relationship. It is the act of announcing, revealing, notifying, reporting and
conveying Ogbulogo (2004). This can be
communicated by mass media via adverts. Communicating to teach is aimed at
influencing behaviour in a permanent form.
In this case, the message should be clear, concise and logical by
employing simple words and short sentences.
In
communicating to transact, there are legal implications as in agreements,
contracts, receipts and confirmations. When communication is used for
transaction, there is the need to avoid misinterpretation and
misrepresentation. Avoidance of legal jargon, correct spelling of words, dating
every page, indicating stakeholders et cetera are measures to be taken to avoid
misinterpretation. Misinterpretation can also be avoided by specifying
functions, avoiding abbreviations, indicating the relevant law guiding the
transaction and stating action standards. Communicating to reassure is meant to
allay fears. It should be clear, honest and
down-to-earth. In addition, the support
of the third party evidence is necessary. Persuasive communication is used in
advertising, motivating employees, convincing clients and customers, selling,
ensuring social responsibility and guaranting peaceful work environment. A
great deal of business communication hinges on persuasive communication.
INTERACTION
FORMATS IN ORGANISATIONS
Interaction format in organisation simply means the
plan, design or arrangement of communication flow within organisations.
Communication format in the organisation can be grouped into different
categories depending on the structure, objectives, location, size, and members
that make up the organization. Communication format in the organisation can be formal
and informal, intra, inter, open, closed, verbal, non-verbal, vertical and
horizontal depending on the policy of the organization. Internal
communicational flow/format in the organisation can be classified as: upward
communication, downward and horizontal communication. In addition, interaction
format in organization can also be grouped according to communication network,
a communication network is made up of all the routes through which information,
messages pass through in organizations, according to (Ogbulogo, 2004), these networks
are: The circular network, the chain network, the “y” network and the star
network.
Formal Communication in
Organizations
This
kind of communication format is a systematic and formal process of information
transmission in spoken and written form planned in advance, and adjusted with
the needs of the organisation. While informal communication does not follow the
line determined in advance, but there is an undisturbed communication between
particular groups within the organisation. In organization, formal
communication follows the chain of command. Communication flow from top
executives to subordinates to operative employees in what is commonly called
downward communication. It is the management that provides the channel through
which communication flows downward and upward. Both in the upward and downward
communication, the management are involved for it creates the favourable
climate for free flow of ideas and information (Daramola, 2012).
Downward
communication flows from the higher to the lower levels in the organisation. It
is characteristic for giving orders, broadening of ideas and communicational
knowledge. It takes up a lot of time, but its most common problem is the loss
or denying of information on the path through the chain of command; very often
there is misunderstanding of the directions, therefore backward connection has
to be established in order to confirm the transmission of correct and full
information. Weihrich and Koontz (2012) term the horizontal and diagonal flow
of information aside ward communication, because of their generic joint
features. Fox (2001) cited in Turkalj and Fosić (n.d) stated that communication
in the organisation represents a complex system of the flow of information,
orders, wishes and references made out of two partially complementary systems.
The Major Channels Used
in Downward Communication in Organizations Include:
- Chain of command
- Company periodicals
- Posters and bulletin boards
- News flash
- Letters
- Memos
- Employee handbooks and pamphlets
- Annual reports
- The organization grapevine
- Intercom system and loud speaker
- The labour union
- Social media such as Whatsapp, Facebook, Twitter, Email etc.
It
is the function of management to select the channels best suited for the
transmission of intended message(s)/information.
Upward communication
is the type of communication that goes up the official hierarchy, from the
lower to the higher level within an organisation. Information goes from the
subordinates to the superiors. It is mostly used for sending information
associated with the proposals system, employees’ opinion, work insight,
attitudes and problems of the employees. It is important to secure the freedom
of communicating (undisturbed information flow) since the main drawback of the
upward communication is message filtering. Upward communication which deals
with communication from subordinates to the superior should be kept open to
encourage subordinates to use them. Some of the channels for upward
communication are:
- Chain of command
- The grievance procedure
- Moral questionnaires
- Exit interview
- Labour unions
- Counseling
- An open door policy
- The organization grapevine
- Social media such as Whatsapp, Facebook, Twitter, Email etc.
Upward
communication is very necessary in order to promote good human relations. It is
through this means that management keeps an eye on the feelings of employees
and takes appropriate action to correct what could otherwise lead to costly
labour management dispute. Employees who believe that management maintains a
policy tend to have feeling of belonging and of being appreciated. Daramola
(2012) opined that where the stated scenario is not the case, employees believe
that they are mere members, or a cost of production. And that they often seek
for the opportunity to give vent to their pent-up emotion by frequent complains
thus promoting labour management conflicts.
Horizontal Communication:
In organization, there is communication among people on the same rank in the
organizational hierarchy. Horizontal
communication appears among people of the same status within a department or
among different working units, whereas the diagonal
communication appears among people of the different status who are not
formally connected in the organisational communication system. This
communication is very important if work processes are to be facilitated. In
some instances there is more interaction between people on the same level in
the organization than there is between them and their immediate boss especially
in a decentralized organization. Horizontal communication can occur between
members of an organization of the same rank. It includes communication between
members of the same division of an organization, for example Vice Chancellor’s
office can call on all the deans to meet the VC for an emergency meeting.
Horizontal communication is that which flows across and between departments at
one or less the same management level. The system operates through internal
communication channels such as internal telephone, memoranda or face-to-face
communication.
The
purpose of this is to achieve the following:
- Task coordination
- Problem solving
- Information sharing
- Conflict resolution
- Building rapport
Informal Communication in
Organizations
Informal
communication takes place when there is no strict or fixed rule in packaging
the information. Informal communication occurs as a conversation when two or
more people meet in a social gathering to discuss subject of personal or
business nature (Daramola, 2012). Much information take place over the meal
tables at canteen lunch, work lunch or social occasions. Any type of social
gathering can be a vehicle for informal communication. Such occasions which are
also a channel for grapevine can offer a manager the opportunity to acquire
information about the way workers are thinking and as to their feelings,
attitudes and grievances. Unlike formal
relationships, informal communication networks consist of interaction patterns
that are not designed by management. That is, this does not follow the line
determined in advance, but there is an undisturbed communication between
particular groups within the organisation. Kraut, R. E., Fish, R. S., Root, W.
R. & Chalfonte, B. L. (2002) argued that informal communication, generally
mediated by physical proximity, is crucial for coordination to occur. Informal
communication is frequent in organizations, it aids organizational members in
learning about each other and their work, it supports both production work and
the social relations that underlie it, and it provides a critical facility that
collaborators rely on to start joint work, maintain it, and drive it to
conclusion. Without informal communication, much collaboration would
undoubtedly not occur and others would break up before becoming successful.
Theorists
have long recognized that organizations make use of communication methods
varying in formality that they deploy these different methods for tasks varying
in uncertainty, and that matching the informality of the methods with the
uncertainty of the task leads to better organizational outcomes. At both the organizational
and the small group level, the coordination of activity is the
production-oriented task that has been examined in most detail. Coordination is
the activity of directing individuals' efforts towards achieving common and
explicitly recognized goals (Blau & Scott, 1962) cited in Kraut et. al. (2002).
They stated that coordination means to link together different parts of an
organization to accomplish a collective set of tasks. Explicit coordination is indispensable
in part because individuals within an organization have only partially
overlapping goals. Thus, one of the aims of coordination is to insure that the
disparate individuals come to share the same goals. But even if this aim was
achieved, and their goals were identical, the input-output dependencies among
individuals require that their efforts be sequenced and interrelated
efficiently.
The
coordination mechanisms used by organizations differ in their degree of
formality. That is, in their degree of pre-specification, conventionality, and
rule-boundedness. At the formal end of the dimension, coordination is
accomplished by adherence to common rules, regulations, and standard operating
procedures, through pre-established plans, schedules, and forecasts, and
through memos, management information reports, and other standardized
communications. These formal coordination mechanisms have in common
communication that is specified in advance, is unidirectional, and is
relatively impoverished. Informal communication is a loosely defined concept
and is often treated as the residual category in organizational theory.
According to this perspective, informal communication is that which remains
when rules and hierarchies, as ways of coordinating activities, are eliminated.
More positively, informal communication is communication that is spontaneous,
interactive and rich, Kraut et. al. (2002) added.
At
the heart of informal communication is its impromptu nature. Conversations take
place at the time, with the participants, and about the topics at hand. In informal
communication, the timing, participants and agenda are not scheduled in
advance. Moreover, during its course the communication changes to take into
account the participants' current interests and understandings. In this sense,
informal communication is truly interactive, with all participants in the
communication being able to respond to what they perceive to be the current
state of affairs, including the communication up until that point and their
perception of the other participants' reactions to it. Through this feedback
mechanism, informal communication can be more effective than formal channels,
as participants in the conversations elaborate or modify what they have to say
in order to deal with someone else's objections, misunderstandings or current
challenges.
Most
of the work that people do in organizations requires some degree of active
cooperation and communication with others. This is true of routine clerical work;
it is equally true of creative work, like scientific research or engineering development.
Indeed, in some scientific fields over 65% of publications are jointly authored
(Over, 1982) cited in Kraut et. al. (2002), and most research projects,
regardless of authorship, require support staffs of clerks, research
assistants, or technicians. Individual members of groups need to communicate
with each other to accomplish their production and social functions, and within
organizations, groups need to communicate with other groups. The communication
they use is both formal and informal.
In
most places of work, informal communication seems to be a dominant activity.
People read at their desks but are interrupted by phone calls. They leave to
attend a department meeting but stop on the way to discuss a matter with a
colleague. To answer questions about office procedure, they call to the person
at the next desk rather than consult the appropriate manual. The conversations
seem fluid and undesigned and yet, clearly, work is being accomplished. In
looking at the contrast between formal and informal communication, it occurred
to us that the more spontaneous and informal communications was, the less well
it was supported by communication technology.
Dyadic communication in
Organizations
This
is a subset of interpersonal communication. It involves two or more people
engaging in interaction. Format of communication in organization can take
dyadic format and this can occur between employer and applicant or employee. It
helps for information seeking and clarification. In this form of communication,
feedback is immediate. The feedback allows the communicator to ascertain
whether the source is effective or not.
Group communication in
Organizations
Groups
exist in our homes, schools, work environments, markets, churches etc. Each group has its characteristics,
aspirations and problems. Group
communication is usually in the form of meetings, discussions, conferences,
symposia, workshops and lectures (Ogbulogo, 2004). Group communication can also be a subset of
interpersonal communication. A group consists of five or more persons who come
together to design or by accident/emergency for a particular purpose. Group
communication can occur within an organization. Groups are formed or set up
usually because the combined efforts of a number of people results in greater
output than the individual efforts of the same number of people. Members of
such group engage in group communication by exchanging ideas, experiences, thoughts,
information, and messages. Example of such group in an educational organization
can be examination malpractice committee, project committee, Senate committee, study
group among others. Group communication is for members of an organisation. Both
are effective in business and social relationships. There is immediate feedback
to communication that takes place among the group members.
Public Communication in
Organizations
Public
communication is public speaking or oral presentation of information, address
or lecture by a person to a relatively large audience in a public setting such
as lecture hall, auditorium, and open rally (political rally, religious
crusade).The audience is large but are within the same vicinity. It is a form of
interpersonal communication. In this situation the speaker may require a
microphone fitted to a public address system for the audience to hear him
(Daramola, 2012). For example, political party is an organization, therefore
public communication/public speaking
is an integral
part of any political party activities/democracy, and it
remains one of
the more commonly
understood venues where
people deliver remarks
to audiences. Speeches, campaign events, presidential
addresses, and a countless of other situations provide politicians with
opportunities to speak to audiences. The
political arena is not the only one where public speaking skills are a
necessity.
In the
private sector, where
companies seek to
convince consumers to
purchase their goods
or services, representatives are
often called upon
to deliver presentations
designed to facilitate sales. Corporate executives
also address their
employees and investors
periodically to inform
them about the
state of the
company’s finances and
what the goals
are for the
coming quarter or year. Today in business,
these modes of
interaction involving speech
have been influenced
greatly in recent
years by the
development of electronic
media such as Skype, IMO, Prezi, and even something as simple as
conference calling.
The
importance of speech is not limited to politics and business but even extends
to human personal lives. Public communication is an essential part of everyday life
and business interaction. More than
ever, traditional and new forms of media are being used by individuals, groups,
and organizations to disseminate information to the public, and influence
judgments, perceptions, values, and actions. An understanding of media use,
processes and effects is critical for success in a competitive marketplace.
Format of Interaction
in Organisation can also be grouped into: Oral, Written and Nonverbal Form.
Oral Communication
– the spoken word is the main code of the communication. Formal discussions and
informal rumours are some of the forms of oral communication. Usual channels of
oral communication are phone, video, and face-to-face conversations. There are
some advantages of oral communication over other forms of communication, namely
the speed of conveying the information and feedback. The disadvantage, however,
is the possibility of distorting the original message. In the business world
oral communication plays a great role in the life of organisations.
Written Communication
– compared to the oral communication it is tangible whereby it is much easier
to verify the data. One of its disadvantaged is that it takes up more time
compared to the oral communication and there is not a direct feedback. The
written form of the communication is attached to some sort of technology which
enables us to convey the information.
Written
communication should be used when a message that does not require interaction
needs to be communicated to an employee or group. Policies, letters, memos,
manuals, notices and announcements are all messages that work well for this
channel. Recipients may follow up through an electronic or face-to-face channel
if questions arise about a written message.
Non-Verbal
Communication: This type of communication is without speech or word of
mouth. It means communicating with whole or part of our body through well
chosen, agreed or universally acceptable sign, behavioural cues, silence, facial
expression, gesturing, tone of the voice; look and appearance, the way we sit,
our dance directions, a sigh. All these are some of the elements of non-verbal
communication. Non-verbal communication implies all intentional and accidental
meanings which have no form of a written or spoken word. Non-verbal form of the
communication is often neglected compared to the other forms of communication.
Important advantages of non-verbal communication are that it supports other
forms of communication; whereas the disadvantage is that the recipient may
misconceive the message and consequently misinterpret it (Daramola, 2012).
Body
language has undergone a lot of refinement over the years so much that complete
sign language has been evolved for the use of the deaf and dumb. Similarly, in
radio and television studios, sign language rather than words are used to guide
the artistes particularly when the programme is on air. Sign language is also
used in factories where the sounds of heavy equipment hinder verbal
communication. Information can silently be passed through these means because people
can read meaning into actions and people’s basic actions can be interpreted.
Non-verbal communication includes diagrams, statistical tables, map, number and
pictures among others. Each sign has symbolic meaning for different people at
varying occasions (Daramola, 2012).
Organisational
communication networks portray how
communication flows in organisation.
Communication is an organisation occurs in certain recurring patterns,
regardless of the type of communication that takes place. The set of pathways through which information
flows within a group or organisation is called a communication network.
Communication
is good or effective when members of an organisation share information with
each other and all parties involved are relatively clear about what this
information means. Communication is
ineffective when people either do not receive the information they need or are
not quite sure or clear what the information they do receive means.
Bureaucracy
is the centralization of administration through hierarchy. The organisation is
being governed by norms and sets of rules, which need to be enforced. Supervision and control are of utmost
importance for its success. Those who are to supervise and enforce these rules
need formal right to require obedience and compliance by the employees. Even if you know that something is to be
done, the formal order from the superior officer(s) is necessary in order not
to flout the laid down rules and regulations. In this type of formal
organisation lines of authority and communication flow downwards while the
feedback flows upward. A superior
executive who delegate authority to his subordinate must be prepared to accept
responsibility for the outcome that are likely to follow his instructions. Equally, a staff that accepts authority to
carry out a task should be ready to account for his performance on the
allocated task.
The
provision of channels of communication through which subordinates could employ
to communicate upward can help to discover clashes of interests, reconcile
conflicts, and coordinate efforts. Some
of these channels are labour union, committees, et cetera, that meet with the
management periodically.
In
the personnel management by Edulcin (n.d), he stated that having procured,
developed, compensated and integrated employees for the organisation, one must
now face the task of maintaining the effective work force that has been
assembled. Two major features of this
work force must be specifically maintained: these are attitudes and physical
condition. The number of factors
affecting the development and maintenance of employee is limitless, but verbal
and nonverbal communication processes are involved in all cases.
Sometimes
communication flows around issues, goals, projects and challenges rather than
upward and downward from one formal reporting relationship to another. The found about flow ensures that members of
the organization have access to the information they need to perform their
jobs. This does not mean that the
organisation chart is abandoned. But the
most important thing is to wait for order from the superior officer before
embarking on action.
Within
an organisation, many communication signals will be sent through formally
designated channels. Traditional
management is noted for insisting that channels be followed in order that work
can be coordinated and unity of command preserved. Behaviourists such as
McGregor and Arguris recommended less structuring in communication. All personnel are deemed to be capable and
responsible, and greater participation in management decision making should be
sought. Communication does not just flow
from top-down in ideal organisation, managers at all levels listen to
subordinates and often make changes based of their subordinate recommendation.
In
nutshell, structuring communication flow will lead to the efficiency desired by
traditional managers. However, less structuring will lead to greater individual
job satisfaction and enhances flow of information within an organisation. Subjects in the experiment expressed greater
interest and enjoyed the process more under conditions of free
interchange.
In
addition, where there was less structure, there tended to be more ideas, and
suggestions of an innovative type, a finding that has been emphasized by
behaviourists. Thus some control of communication is essential to efficiency
through division of work, coordination of efforts, and reservation of unity of
direction. However, the resulting
regimentation is somewhat detrimental to morale and employee satisfaction and
also represses a tendency towards innovation.
New Media and
Organizational Communication
This
is extra-personal communication or machine to machine communication. It has
been popularized by the emergence and sustained use of computers automation and
robotics. New media is an electronic means of mass communication that is
interactive and integrates computers with multimedia. The world of information
technology has revolutionized the entire system of sending message from one
place to another. Information Technology (IT) development progress of the past three
decades has made it possible to put at everyone’s finger tips all the
information accumulated in the world since man learned to write.
The new media have the capacity to combine and
process spoken, written, video, pictures, diagrams, signs and all type of
message forms on the same platform and can be sent at the same time to the
target audience or recipients at any point in time across the globe. The term
new media simply implies that the media (internet, mobile phone,) were the last
media that emerged (Ogedengbe et. al, 2010). They defined new media as
interactive forms of communication that use the internet, including podcasts,
RSS feeds, social networks, text messaging, blogs, wikis, virtual worlds and
more. They stressed further that new media make it possible for anyone to
create, modify, and share content and share it with others, using relatively
simple tools that are often free or inexpensive. New media require a computer or mobile device
with internet access.
The
new information technology has transformed the mode of business transaction the
world over. The speed at which information moves across the globe is
incredible. The network of information can process large amount of data within
a seconds. There are software packages
that assist in processing of more complex data within the twinkle of an eye. A
manager that dreams success needs to update his knowledge on the use of
information technology.
For
some companies and individuals professionals, the internet is used for the bulk
or all of their advertising. Mostly people choose internet to transact their
business because there are opportunities to reach a large number of surfers, in
a variety of ways, for free or for very reasonable rates. There have been
substantial growths in electronic commerce since the commercialization of the
internet in the 1990’s. Websites represent a low-cost option that consumers can
access anytime when needing to purchase goods or services. Organizations use
Internet advertising to reach new markets and customers through carefully
placed web banners or ads. Business technology allows companies to outsource
business function to other businesses in the national and international
business environment.
Holmes (2004) opined that communicating in the
world of the IT word starts with a battle between human and the machines. To win the battle, human must accomplish two
objectives. He must be sure the message
gets through the machine, second, effectively reach the mind of the party at
other end. In the world of the IT word, it is easy to get lost in detail and
forget that there are real people at both ends of the chain. Humans must ultimately make the final
decision. Human beings should never let
numbers or machines make decisions.
Today
organisations can connect and communicate with those in foreign countries with
the click of a mouse. Decades ago, it would have taken months or years to find
an inroad with a foreign partner or associate. Today, it is possible to build a
business with someone in another country in a matter of weeks or even days.
There is no question that technology has radically changed the way
organizations communicate, do business, extend their influence in the global
marketplace and improve the quality and efficiency of their day-to-day
operations. In the area of business communications, has already become firmly
established. Communication technology such as Computer-mediated communications
have revolutionized the way that people stay in touch and the way that
companies conduct business. Today, most of the major companies in around the
world maintain their own data and personal communication networks so that all
departments can communicate effectively and efficiently by electronic means.
One aspect of increasing importance in these systems is the use of electronic
mail, computer conferencing, and increasingly, computer-supported collaborative
work between individuals or groups who may be scattered in different regions of
a country or even different continents. The "globalization" of
business communication has become necessary for businesses and organizations to
stay competitive.
Business
technology has revolutionized the way companies conduct business. With the help
of communication technology, small businesses can implement business technology
and level the playing field with larger organizations. Small businesses use
computers, servers, websites and personal digital products to develop
competitive advantages in the economic marketplace.
Business
technology can help small businesses improve their communication processes.
Emails, texting, websites and personal digital products applications, known as
“apps," can help companies improve communication with consumers. Using
several types of information technology communication methods allow companies
to saturate the economic market with their message. Companies may also receive
more consumer feedback through these electronic communication methods. These
methods also allow companies to reach consumers through mobile devices in a
real-time format.
Organizations
use technology to create secure environments for maintaining sensitive business
or consumer information. Many types of business technology or software programs
are user-friendly. This allows business owners with a minor background in
information technology to use computer hardware and software. Some of the channels
provided by new media are:
Mobile
A
mobile communication channel is used when a private or more complex message
needs to be relayed to an individual or small group. A mobile channel allows
for an interactive exchange and gives the recipient the added benefit of
interpreting the speaker's tone along with the message. Some within an
organization may opt to use this channel versus a face-to-face channel to save
on the time and effort it would take to coordinate a face-to-face meeting.
Electronic
Electronic
communication channels encompass email, teleconferencing, computer
conferencing, Internet, intranet and social media platforms. This channel can
be used for one-on-one, group or mass communication. It is a less personal
method of communication but more efficient. When using this channel, care must
be taken to craft messages with clarity and to avoid the use of sarcasm and
innuendo unless the message specifically calls for it.
Broadcast Media
TV,
radio and loud speakers all fall within the broadcast media communication
channel. These types of media should be used when addressing a mass audience.
Businesses seeking to notify customers of a new product may advertise or do
promotions using a broadcast channel. Similarly, a Chief Executive Officer (CEO)
may do a global company address by having a television feed broadcast across
global sites. When a message intended for a mass audience can be enhanced by
being presented in a visual or auditory format, a broadcast channel should be
used.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
IN ORGANIZATIONS
A good quality
of a manager expected in organization is the ability to communicate
effectively. To be “Effective’’ simply means to be able to produce desired
result. Effective communication is possible when
there is an established relationship between the manager and the employee. Therefore, effective communication implies getting
result after information has been disseminated. The teacher should be able to
communicate his/her knowledge to his/her students. It is a means whereby
students and teachers in classroom exchange information regarding the teaching
and learning process to achieve educational objectives and managing the communication
process require attention to the media of communication and the personal
interrelationships of employees in the organization Andabai,
P. W., Basuo, B. K. and Eke, G. J. (2011). This means that effective
communication produces understanding, mutual trust and good relationship
between the parties involved in the communication process. The reception given
by the receiver to the idea transmitted will engender a corresponding action
expected by the sender. Until a manager makes his instruction/message simple,
clear and straight forward, there will always be an obstruction in his message.
Effective communication between manager and employees leads to efficiency.
Effective communication and enables contact with people around us and people
living far away. This is so because in this age of computer-mediated
communication. Holmes
(2004) stated that:
“Messages
should be conveyed in terms that help receiver. If a sales manager informed his
salesman that his target had been raised, he would likely to receive a worse
response than if he gave the salesman the view that there was a possibility for
him to make more money.’’
In
large organisation, many activities take place. To keep up with the changes and
the information explosion; and to ensure that instructions are clear and that
there is an understanding of why things happen, there is the need for effective
communication. Communication can be viewed as being basically a matter of
empathy and perception. Empathy, McPherson of Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh, explained, is an attempt to use one’s imagination to understand how
another feels. It involves a mental
projection of oneself into the world of other people.
Communication
is deemed to be effective if the result for which it is intended are
achieved. The results could be to pass
information, to share an idea, to express a feeling with the overall aim of
getting the recipient to react in an expected way. Ogbulogo (2004) stated that
to achieve this, there are a number of principles that should be followed. These are Grecian cooperative principle of
human communications. These principles
have a number of conversation maxims.
Quantity
– Provide the right quantity of information, i.e.
(i)
Make your contribution informative enough;
(ii)
Do not make your
contribution more information than necessary.
Quality -
Make your contribution true, i.e.
(i)
Do not say what you believe is not true;
(ii)
Do not say that for
which you lack evidence.
Relation
- Be relevant
Manner
- Be perspicuous, i.e
(i)
Avoid obscurity of expression;
(ii)
Avoid ambiguity.
For
communication to achieve its purpose, it must be simple, concise, sincere and
courteous.
Simplicity
– the message must be presented in very simple language;
Conciseness - The
message must be brief and straight to the point;
There is no
room for irrelevant details and pleasantries.
Courtesy
- The audience must be accorded some respect and their feelings appealed to;
Sincere
- Saying what you really think or feel.
Akinfeleye,
a professor at the University of Lagos, stated that to communicate effectively
is to say what you mean and mean what you say.
In
addition to clarity, simplicity, sincerity, conciseness and courtesy; effective
communication can be facilitated by:
·
Thinking thoroughly
about the message
·
Analyzing the audience
to ascertain what will be appropriate to them;
·
Planning the message to
ensure proper understanding and
·
Choosing proper words,
code, symbols, structures and sentences to match the experience of the
audience.
Effective
communication according to Rozell et. al. (1988), is the process (verbal or non
verbal) of an agape relationship which enables two or more persons to
experience each other in truth and in love and the spiritual, psychological,
and physical levels of life. It involves the total person in the sharing of
feelings, thoughts and decisions. According to them, the characteristics of
effective communication are that message and information must be simple,
realistic, and learned. With these characteristics, managers and subordinates
would not avoid talking about things as they really area. They would not say
one thing and do something else in their relationship. They would accept
responsibility for what they say and they would be ready to share needs, feelings,
experiences and trust. Effective communication demands practice. It can be
learnt by listening actively to the content and feeling of a message.
Effective
communication might not be a panacea for all the conflicting values between
management and non-management personnel, but it is an important means for
increasing workflow and efficiency. It helps to raise productivity and better
understanding among staff.
Communication is
emotive if the aim is to sensitize the audience
into action by the use of words. The message is persuasive and action packed.
Most leaders have been found to communicate emotively since they want their
followers to act as they want.
While
the supportive communication conveys
the message of fellow feelings, supportive communicators are sensitive to the
feelings of those with whom they are communicating. Such communicators cut the image of simple
and common people. The aim is to make
the audience feel relaxed.
For
authoritative, assertive and demanding superiors, communication is usually
directive, there no opinions. The word of the directive communicator is law.
The communication by sensitive office holders is usually reflective. Every bit
of the communication is carefully thought out and weighed before it is
expressed.
Barriers to Effective Communication
in Organizations
Barriers
to communication in organisation are not different from hindrances to
communication in everyday life of individuals. There are certain barriers which
stand on the way of a free exchange of communication between managers and
employees. Communication barriers in this study could be defined as hindrances
that inhibit exchange of information, ideas and any other form of data between
the managers and employees in an organisation.
Onasanya
(1998) stated in his ‘Effective Personnel
Management and Industrials’ that there are a great number of obstacles that
affect the accuracy of communication – the qualities and feelings, mood of the
parties to a communication, extraneous influences competing for attention and
time not the parties. The most important determinant of the quality of communication
is, however, the sender himself. He can
make the message explicit and can blur the understanding of the listener
depending upon his mood and feelings.
According to Onasanya, many obstacles can impede good communication such
as vested interest, unwillingness to communicate, personal emotion, suspicion
and so on.
Onasanya
stressed further that:
“Clique exists in offices to safeguard self
interests at the expense of the organisation.
Such cliques form the habit of suppressing information, hoarding jobs
and papers to create communication gap between junior and senior staff. Sometimes cliques of selfish officers at the
expense of the organisation deliberately withhold directives, suggestions and
reports that are necessary for quick implementation of some programs. Prejudices and personal conviction becloud
communication especially where one person has prejudice against the other. Such prejudices always becloud information
passed between both of them so that the listener reacts differently. On few occasion this happens among junior and
senior staff and this can make it difficult for the junior officers to know the
next line of action.’’
Noise
is a specialized term for all forms of obstacles that inhibit the effectiveness
of communication. It reduces the quality
and quantity of what is communicated.
Noise may be physical, psychological or linguistic.
Noise
from microphone, market noise, distracting conversations, unorganized sounds
from meeting, undesirable sound from engine, barking of dog et cetera are good
examples of physical noise. Noise of
whatever form hinder effective communication within group and in organisation.
Psychological noise originates
from human attitudes, emotion and abilities. For instance, suspicion is a major
barrier to communication in organisation.
It can emanate from any section of the set up. In term of industrial crisis, labour leaders
may have preconceived ideas about management representatives and may refuse to
believe anything they tell them. Equally
management may regard any grievance raised by labour leaders as political
maneuvers to win union votes. This also
affects supervisor workers relations.
Inattention is
another hindrance to effective communication in organization. In attention on the part of any party to
communication process reduces assimilation and distant messages.
Strained relationship
is a psychological noise that frustrates communication process. It makes the
listener indifferent to the speaker and vice-versa, thereby giving the message
a different meaning and consequently, a negative reaction. This occurs in organisation among staff and
reduces the outcome of team work, and general productivity.
Anger, frustration,
hatred and poor interpersonal relationship, suspicion
are aspects of psychological barriers.
It occurs in form of depression, fatigue, poor mental attitudes and
general emotional stress.
Barrier
to effective communication can also be linguistics. This occurs with misapplication of language
in communication. Linguistic noise could be grammatical, phonological or
semantic. When there is fault in sentence construction, it is referred to as
grammatical noise. This can also occur
when there is misapplication of grammatical rules or the misuse of punctuation
marks. Poor pronunciation, wrong
intonation, stress placement and unfamiliar accent are the elements of
phonological noise.
Organisational
communication can be effective with minimum noise when the encoders (senders)
of message(s) lay more emphasis or repeat the major contents of their codes
(messages for better understanding of the receivers (decoder). The sender can
also use illustrations and Examples to clarify his message(s) to the receivers.
Forms of Barriers in
Organizational Communication
There
are many forms of barrier in communication.
Barrier can be in the following forms:
(a) The message
(b) Failure
to transmit the message
(c) Failure
to receive the message
(d) Failure
to interpret the message correctly
(e) Failure
to select appropriate codes-words, actions, image or illustrations
(a) The
message itself can be a barrier if it is not complete. An incomplete message remains vague or
confused to the receivers. Senders
sometimes do not adequately plan or think through their messages.
(b) Failure to transmit the
message.
According to Marshall McLuhan, medium is the message. This can be
interpreted to mean that appropriate choice of channel to disseminate
information enhances the understanding of the message by the audience.
There are certain bits of information that are
better transmitted by words of the mouth or in spoken form than in written form
and vice-versa. Senders of messages need
to carry out audience analysis and choose the right channel to transmit their
messages. Transmission of messages can
break down if there is break down in computer or internet system, facility
phone or the phone lines engaged inadequate address on letters e.t.c.
(c) Failure to receive the
message:
The channel used by the sender to transmit the message might not
applicable or available to the receiver.
The receiver may not get the message due to psychological reasons such
as being occupied with thinking, worrying or engaging in other thing when the
message is being passed across. There
are factors that are responsible for recipient failure to get the message. It can be as a result of family problem, work
overload, the fear of a boss that is harsh, pressures from environment such as
friends or co-workers etc.
(d) Failure
to interpret (decode) the message correctly: According to Akinfeleye, Mass
Communication is making things of common knowledge. That is, communication is about sharing and
exchange of information, ideas and knowledge.
Therefore, for better understanding of a bit of message the sender and
receiver must have common understanding of the codes or words used to convey
the message.
The
message may not be interpreted correctly if the encoder/sender and
decoder/receiver do not have common understanding of the codes. If the terms or language is beyond the
comprehension of the receiver there is bound to be misinterpretation of the
message. The sender needs to put himself
in the position or level of the audience or receiver and decide what language
to employ in passing message to employ in passing messages. Too technical terminologies in messages can
confuse the receiver.
(e)
Failure
to select appropriate codes words, actions, images or illustrations: Audience is the language. Any message
that is not packaged and delivered in language or codes that is conform with
the level of the audience is bound to fail. Hence audience analysis is required
before disseminating information. Every
context requires specific codes, words, action, images and illustration. There are platform that requires formal language,
while informal language is appropriate for others. Some words are vulgar, while others are
decent. Audience and occasion are
paramount in determination of appropriate language to be used in communication.
In organisation, managers are to communicate in
language that is better understood by their audience. Many operation and programmes of private and
public policies have failed in Nigeria due to choice of inappropriate words in
dissemination of information.
The Follow
Results Occur When Communication is Successful:
(a) People or staff feel satisfied
(b) Workers
are motivated
(c) Workers
show understanding.
(d) Followers
trust and respect their leaders.
(e) Workers
feel empowered
(f) Workers
work as a team
(g) Workers
perform their duties well and as expected
(h) Workers
listen and take instruction as required
(i) Workers
are happy to work, save time and achieve stated objectives
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS IN
ORGANIZATION COMMUNICATION
The
main focus of audience analysis is to find out something about the recipient of
the message of communication. Thorough analyses of the recipient of a
particular message would surely assist the encoder (sender) to plan his message
in such a way that the message is received and understood as expected by the
sender. There is the need for sender of a message to have knowledge of the
audience or the receivers of the message such as the recipient level of
knowledge, education, language, emotion, the environment, personality trait,
sex, age, the time of the message et cetera.
Analyzing
the audience may require the sender to put himself in the shoe of the receiver.
The sender of the message needs to ask himself questions and meditate on the
composition, environmental atmosphere and the knowledge of the audience. Another
factor that may enhance the message understanding by the audience is the relationship between the sender and the
receiver. In organisation communication, the audience could be internal or
external or both. The internal audience
includes employees, committees, management and Directors. The external audience comprises customers,
media, shareholders, community, government, financial institutions, regulatory
bodies and general public.
Success
in communicating with a specific audience depends on how well the characteristic
of the group is understood. Directors and members of the management are ever
too busy and interested in leadership and control. Many of them may not be as
knowledgeable as the actual operators.
Messages intended for them should be prioritized, short, plain and set
in bullet points. Such messages should carry
practical solutions and suggestions (Ogbulogo, 2004). For employees and
subordinates, the message should be reassuring, motivating forthcoming,
persuasive and unambiguous in language.
Messages meant for clients and customers should be respectful,
persuasive and straight to the point.
The
message for general public should be open, accessible and friendly. It is very
important to open opportunity for feedback for all categories of audience in
order to access the level of understanding of messages by the audience. Credibility
of the source and the sender of a message are very important for the
acceptability and understanding of the message.
He added that credibility is something the speaker possess and not
something given to the speaker by the audience. Communication is seen as a
two-way process involving a dynamic interplay of an active sender and receiver.
This is very useful in conflict situations. To be effective in communication
and administration, a manager must bring about a desired result Clampitt
(1991). The critical question is: What are the desired results? Indeed, manager’s responses to the
effectiveness issue according to Clampitt (1991) exposed their ultimate aims:
(a) Communication effectively is actively
listening to my workers, so as to know what makes them happy. This is hinged on
the assumption that job satisfaction is the goal of organizational
communication.
(b) My
communication is effective when I am open to my employees’ ideas and suggestion.
I want them to feel included and understood me. This means that openness is
useful in all circumstances. And that understanding is always more acceptable
than ambiguity.
(c) I’m
effective as a manager when I am sensitive to employee’s needs and
concerns. Then I try to communicate that
sensitivity to them by adapting my message to individuals. This conveys the fact that messages are
exclusively interpreted in the context of interpersonal relationship.
Clampitt (1991)
stated that communication breakdown in
Organizations are due to the following:
First,
the most frequently cited cause of communication breakdowns for managers is
that people just ‘don’t connect.’ That is people values, ideas or feelings are
so dissimilar that they have difficulty in relating to one another. Hence, huge amounts of time must be invested
in reaching an understanding.
Second,
managers often cite poor listening as the reason for communication
difficulties. Some managers often
encourage their employees to develop active listening skills such as
paraphrasing others’ remarks, giving feedback, and asking appropriate probing
questions. These skills help employees
think about possible misinterpretations of their remarks as well as check for
unintended messages, therefore, employees involved in a misunderstanding are
frequently reminded of the Maxim ‘You
cannot not communicate.’
Third,
conflicts are explained in terms of ‘hidden agendas’ or unarticulated goals.
Managers might seek to dissolve a tense situation with comments like ‘Are you
sure you are being completely honest with us? Or you have got to share your
true feelings.’ The obvious influence is that someone is hiding something or
has a hidden agenda. Managers believe
that trust comes from employees revealing their true motives, which, in turn,
fosters an atmosphere of open and honest communication. Only then does the
manager believe that conflict can be truly resolved.
The
number of communication channels available to the average manager has
mushroomed over the years-personal computers, videotapes, electronic bulletin
boards, internet, videotext and other social media platforms. The proliferation
of communication technologies in the workplace creates the illusion of
effective information dissemination that varnishes under close scrutiny. Channels do not communicate, but people do.
Summary
The
process of communication involves several elements: the sender, the message, the medium, and the recipient. It was
found that communication is one of the most important processes that take place
in organization. Effective communication
allows individuals, groups and organisation to achieve their goals and perform
at a high level, and it affects virtually every aspect of organisational
behaviour. It is also found that
communication serves four major functions in organisation: providing knowledge,
motivating staff, controlling and coordinating individual efforts, and
expressing feelings and emotions. Communication flows from the sender which is
the source of the communication (be it an individual or a group). He sends off
the message to the recipient using a particular medium. When talking about the
communication within the organisation, characteristic for the medium are
different. Immediate conversations, memos, printouts and schemes depending on
the content and the aim of the message which the sender wants to convey to the
recipient. The recipient then attempts to understand which message the sender
wants to convey, although the communication process may sometimes be
interrupted by a noise in the communication channel, which can impede the
communication. The problem which often appears within the organisation is
getting information overload which leads to a burden, so therefore it is
important to take account of selecting only the relevant information.
Communication
in organisation entails a number of steps, including selection of a medium, the
sender’s encoding the message, decoding of the message by the receiver and the
feedback.
The
study also highlighted how vested interest, prejudice, suspicion, personal
emotion, strain relationship, break in communication channels and absence of
feedback could result in ineffective
communication and lower human resource moral which would in turn hinder
achieving organisational goals and objectives.
Conclusion
The
expected reward for every enterprise is profit. Therefore, managers are to
communicate with employees, customers and clients in mind. This will guarantee
that what is communicated is appropriate for the audience in term of contents,
needs, volume and style. Greater attention should be paid to the communication
as the element of organisational behaviour because of the growing changes
within organisations which face the leadership with new challenges and
opportunities for testing the different organizational behaviour concept modes.
By identifying the level of communication satisfaction within the organisation
it is possible to get an insight in to organisational forces, but
simultaneously also get an insight into weak points in the area of
communication within the organisation. It can also be used for making important
business decisions within the organisation.
Communication
media are very rich in information (the amount of information they can carry
and the potential they have for enabling senders and receivers to reach a
common understanding). Face-To-Face communication is the medium highest in
information richness. Verbal
communication, personally addressed written communication and impersonal
written communication follow it. In managing human resource for maximum
productivity, constant training in communication is central. Therefore, both
the private and public sectors are better off with the training of their
employees in the use of communication.
Recommendations
Recent
breakthrough in information technologies have given members in organisation new
ways to communicate with each other. It also provides the opportunity for
timely access to move information than ever before. New technologies contribute
primarily to the knowledge function of communication. Organisation, however,
must be careful not to let their reliance on these technologies inadvertently
lead them to short-change other important functions. Motivation and expressing feelings and
emotions for example might be difficult to accomplish solely through electronic
communication.
Now
that the new technologies are here, organisations have to be careful not to overload
members with so much information that they spend more time reading electronic
mail than they do perform their jobs. Technological change requires personnel
department training unit to plan in advance, a training programme in
organisational communication that will facilitate and increase human resource
productivity. A successful communication
training of staff is a leap forward in the direction of the organization’s
development growth and effectiveness.
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