REVIEW OF ARTICLES ON LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NORTH AFRICA
BY SAHID ABIOLA
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This paper intends to examine the
language of instructions in North African secondary schools. However, it was
observed in the course of the task that there are several factors among which
are political, socio-economic, colonization and religious (Arabization) that
determined the decisions of adopting a particular language of instruction in
schools among these nations. It should also be noted that the North African
countries reviewed include: Egypt; Morocco; Libya and Sudan.
2.0 LANGUAGES
OF INSTRUCTION AT THE SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL
The medium of instruction is the
language used by the teacher to teach. Teaching the language, or educational
content, through the target language increases the amount of exposure the
learner gets to it, and the opportunities they have to communicate in it, and
therefore to develop their control of it.
The languages of instruction adopted in
secondary schools are characterized by the categories and peculiarities of
schools within these countries. Ahmed (2006) noted the existence of
experimental secondary schools where the use of English language is the medium
of instruction in Egypt. He showed that the experimental secondary schools are
different from the public secondary schools when he recommended adapting the
suggested programme based on the Whole Language Approach (WLA) for the public
secondary schools taking into consideration the students’ level of needs.
He concludes by saying that secondary
school students needs to use English communicatively and not to study it just
for examination requirements. So, students have to deal with the English
language as a whole.
Ahmed (2006) recommends that improvement
in the content of the English language courses be taught in the experimental
secondary schools in the light of his study results.
The use of English as a medium of
instruction in secondary schools in Egypt as mentioned by Ahmed (2006) was
confirmed when Torky (2006) submitted that the status of English on the
international level is a major factor that contributes to the increased importance
of English language in Egypt.
As a matter of fact, English has become
an important asset for anyone seeking employment in Egypt. The main aim of
teaching English in Egyptian secondary schools is to enable students to
communicate in English so that they become able to enroll in the labour market
and to cope with the challenges of the higher education as well. Thus,
eventually the need for equipping Egyptian English as Primary Language (EPL)
secondary students with effective speaking skills as the most important means
of communication has arisen and more focus is given to spoken English at the
secondary stage. Torky (2006).
As French is studied in some schools as
Second Language/Foreign Language (SL/FL), Torky’s investigation further
confirmed and strengthened Ahmed (2006) position of English as a language of
instruction Egyptian secondary schools.
Amin, Abdul-Sadeq ALy & Amin (2011)
also corroborated the position of Torky (2006) and Ahmed (2006) when they also
confirmed the use of English as a SL/FL in Egyptian Secondary Schools. In their
study based on ‘Using an Explicit Language Learning Strategy-based Instruction
for EFL listening Comprehension Skills’, they defined learning strategy
instruction as a cognitive approach to teaching that helps students to learn
conscious processes and techniques that facilitate the comprehension,
acquisition and retention of new skills and concepts (O’Malley and Chamot,
199:96). Learning strategies instruction improves students’ acquisition of
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in secondary schools in Egypt. They cited
several authors such as Rasekh & Ranjbary (2003), Al-Hriree (2004), Olsen
& Land (2007), Coskun (2010), Jurkovic (2010), and Takallou (2011) who have
also referred EFL in Egyptian Secondary Schools.
In the problem statement of Amin,
Abdul-Sadeq ALy & Amin (2011) they stated that there is a lack in EFL
listening comprehension skills among first year secondary school students. This
is consistent with the statement of problem identified in Torky’s (2006) study
where emphasis was laid on the neglect of EFL speaking skills in Egyptian
secondary classes resulting to students’ inability to communicate. However they
recommended that more time and effort should be exerted to develop EFL
listening comprehension skills as also indicated by Ahmed (2006).
3.0 REASONS
FOR ADOPTION OF SUCH LANGUAGES OF INSTRUCTIONS: Colonization,
Arabization (Religion), Geographical Proximity, Educational reforms
In their introduction, Daniels &
Ball, (n.d.) disclosed that the study discusses the educational system of
Morocco and ways the country’s multilingual history has influenced and
continues to direct the choice of languages of instruction used not only in the
secondary schools but at all levels. Daniels & Ball, (n.d.) cited Collins
& Blot (2003) who showed that decisions about the languages chosen for
instructions, as well as teaching methodology for multilingual students, are a
matter of socioeconomic status, political influence and the status-quo power
structures that dominate schooling in Morocco. Languages have been in conflict
with regards to their appropriateness for use in education and government.
Daniels & Ball, (n.d.) confirmed the
influence of language of the colonizers, however, in Morocco, French has held a
prestigious classification, while the local dialect (Berber) has been assigned
less desirable positions. In the geographically remote areas, secondary schools
is a reality, thus, literacy in Berber has not been possible.
Daniels & Ball’s (n.d.) historical
perspective showed the significant status of the indigenous tongues which do
not merit inclusion in secondary schools, however, today, the use of Moroccan
Arabic is increasing and elementary instruction has begun to be offered in the
Berber dialects. The languages spoken in Morocco today are Standard Arabic
(SA), Berber, Moroccan Arabic (MA), French and Spanish. French has been the
most influential language due to occupation by France from 1912 to 1956.
Morocco; original and oldest language is Berber.
SA is the official language of Morocco
yet few Moroccans speak it as a first language. It is the first language of
instruction in the country’s public schools. SA which is similar to Classical
Arabic (CA) is the language of the Quran, and is used widely in the practice of
the Islamic religion.
Ennaji (2005) cited in Daniels &
Ball, (n.d.) revealed during France occupation, Moroccans were expected to
learn French and to be educated in the ways of the French. The French attempted
to modernize the nation and inculcate the belief that all Europeans and the
French language were superior.
Few Moroccans were exposed to the
language at home yet this was the language of instruction beginning at the
elementary school level during the colonization period. Schools were not offering
dual instructions. The goal was to learn in French only. It became the official
language of government, education, business and the sciences.
Daniels & Ball, (n.d.) opined that
some consider, French the door that opens opportunities in science, Technology
and business. They also confirmed that during this period of colonization,
French and English were taught as FL with French continuing to be the language
of science and technology, while others view the continued use of French as a
reminder of past colonialism and denial of Morocco identity as a non–European
Muslim Nation.
Daniels & Ball, (n.d.) further noted
that presently, languages of instruction is delivered in French and SA because
many instructors prefer to teach in French because they are better prepared to
give instructions in the language that was used to instruct them.
Daniels & Ball, (n.d.) cited (COSEF,
2000:43) that after the French colonization in 1956, Arabic-only policy
(Arabization) was adopted which mandated that Arabic become the official
language of Morocco and that Islam become the state religion. In the 1970s
change was visible when secondary schools added instruction in MA to existing
curricular in French. Arabization continued until the year 2000 when the
National Charter of Education offered reforms. Because Arabization was not
completely successful in the area of science and technology, the charter served
to promote bilingual education in this disciplines and contributed to the birth
of an educational system that values the multiple languages of instruction in
all school levels.
The charter opened the door to
instruction in the Berber dialects of Tarifit, Tamazight and Tashelhit because
it gave regional autonomy to schools. One of the charter’s goals was for
students to learn modern SA, the national language of Morocco, and to acquire
high levels of mastery in two additional languages, preferably English and
French. The author concluded that charter’s intent was to promote equity in
education by making it possible for more students to have access to study in
the content areas in a language could understand.
Issues related to the language in which
teachers have been taught have set the standard for the language to be utilized
for school instruction. During the French protectorate, educators felt more
comfortable teaching in French. This contributed to keeping the French language
as the medium to teach the content areas and most specifically, technology and
science (Ennaji, 2005).
The study of Daniels & Ball, (n.d.)
has further given credence to the existence and usage of not just French,
English language in North African countries.
Lorent-Bedmar (2014) opined that the
changes at the top led to a certain instability and lack of continuity in
education policy. This opinion matches the political instability identified in
Daniel & Ball (n.d.) that affected languages of instruction in Moroccan
secondary schools. He also recognized the effect of Arabization policy,
National Education charter as mentioned in Daniel &Ball (n.d.).
Lorent-Bedmar (2014) confirmed that
Islamic education based on the Quran where Arabic was learnt through writing
and recitation was the original education in Morocco inspired in the principles
and ideals of Arab-Muslim civilization which had its golden age in the middle Age.
Effort was made to discredit this type of education by the French protectorate
but to no avail. The arrival of independence saw them reinforced, with a new
impetus when the monarch leadership (Hassan II,1969) took up position in favour
of the Quranic schools.
The goal of El Fatihi (2006) in his
paper was to analyze nonverbal communication in beginners’ EFL classroom in
secondary schools in Morocco. He indicated and recognized English as a Foreign
Language of instruction in Sale Junior High schools where the researcher
conducted both qualitative and quantitative study. El Fatihi’s (2006) study
confirms Daniels & Ball, (n.d.) position when reference was made to the
National Charter of Education reforms on the acquisition of high levels of
mastery in two additional languages, preferably English and French.
El Fatihi (2006) disclosed that the
questionnaires used in the study were written in Arabic because the target
respondents are beginners, and they do not have a full command of English to
answer the questionnaires in the target language. This explains further
explains the positions of Daniels & Ball, (n.d.).
Benahnia (2015), just as Daniels &
Ball, (n.d.), noted that Classical or Standard Arabic is the official language
in Morocco while also recognizing a distinctive dialect of Arabic known as the
Moroccan Arabic used as first language for non-Berber speakers. Besides Arabic,
French is widely used as a SL. He noted that the introduction of modern schools
which is based on the French system was a true revelation and challenge to the
long existing Quranic schools.
Benahnia (2015) succinctly divided the
education management system in Morocco into three tracks with emphasis on the
first two tracks which are:
1. The Modern track – which is the
continuation of the French system (using both Arabic and French as language of
instruction)
2. Original track which focuses on
Quranic teachings (using Arabic as the language of instruction and the Holy
book of Quran as a main reference for all studies).
Just as Daniels and Ball (n.d.) referred
to the National Charter of Education reforms where bilingualism (English and
French) was encouraged, Benahnia (2015) further revealed in 1963 when education
was made compulsory for all Moroccan children, the language of instruction were
French and Arabic during primary schooling. During this period, all subjects
were Arabized (using Arabic as language of instruction instead of French) in
the first and second grades, while French was maintained as the language of
instruction for scientific subjects such as Maths and Science in secondary
schools.
He was of the opinion that Arabization
was successful to a great extent, and by 1989, all subjects across all grades
in secondary education were Arabized. However, French was maintained as the
language of instruction for scientific subject in technical and professional
secondary schools. Benahnia (2015).
Just as experienced by other North
African nations, Arabsheibani and Manfor (2001) showed that during the colonial
period, Libya experienced a dual education system. Libyan Children had access
to formal education only up to the primary level. Beyond the primary level, the
language of instruction changed from Arabic to Italian. This implies that
Italian was the language of instruction starting from the secondary school
level. The existence of the Qur’anic schools (kuttabs) which concentrated on
the Arabic language and religious studies was also recognized, just as
identified in Daniels & Ball’s (n.d.).
Abdel-Fattah (2005) presented Arabic
sign language as the language of instruction to deaf students and deaf
community at large within an Arabic speaking nation such as Morocco and Libya.
Siddiek (2010) observed that Arabic is
the most dominant as it is spoken by the majority as mother tongue and also
spoken with different variations in many places as a second language. Arabic is
an integrating social and political factor in the unity of the Sudan. Some
local languages are adopting the Arabic alphabet and some of the biblical
scriptures are written in Arabic. The Sudan should remain united through
speaking one language to make unity an attractive option for Sudanese in the
South and the North.
Siddiek (2010) believes that the
geographical proximity of the Arab world made Arabic found a good solid ground,
pointing out that English failed to be the language of instruction in schools
even after several efforts were made by the Governor General during the
colonial era. It was further observed that in 1928, an inter-territorial
conference was convened which came out to oppose Arabic and adopted English as
the lingua franca in the south. However, Arabic was continuous and active
because of active contact between the natives and the Arab traders.
Later in 1949, the Governor-General
authorized the directive that Arabic should become the common language of the
South which was also endorsed by the legislative assembly. This confirmed the
adoption of Arabic as language of instruction in Sudan. (Siddiek, 2010).
Siddiek (2010) quoted the Minister of Education as saying “…the
Sudan is one country sharing the one set of political institutions, it is of
great importance that there should be one language which is understood by all
citizens. The language can only be Arabic and must therefore be taught in all
our schools.’’
It was further noted that in 1974, the
Assembly finally resolved that English language be re-introduced as the medium
of instructions in the educational institutions of the region which was
rejected by the Executive council which recommended a language policy stating
that:
1. In
all junior secondary schools, Arabic shall be the language of instruction while
English is intensified.
2. In
all senior secondary and post senior secondary schools, English shall be the
medium of instruction and Arabic is taught as a language with its literature.
The author concludes by referring to a
quote in a letter written by Mr. Edward Mandeson from Indiana University in
1984 to Dr.Taminni. where he said that: ‘’My contention given the historical
experience for the south and the background history of the Sudanese nation with
its diverse national character, the Arabic language has come to stay and all
that is needed is the casting of an agreeable language policy which is devoid
of the historical sensitivities; generated by the traumatic historical
experience the Sudan has gone through, is the only way out. Yes, it is there to
stay’’ But of course – this time by the own free will and choice of the people.
(Siddiek, 2010).
4.0 CONCLUSION
After careful review of 10 articles
based on the language of instruction in secondary schools in the North African
region, emphasis were on four countries
– Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Sudan. To adequately understand the language of
instruction for some of these countries, it was deemed necessary to first
appreciate the factors behind series of adoption of different languages of
instruction in their secondary schools. A few of these factors are –
colonization, political instability, educational reforms, religion,
Arabization, multilingualism etc. Though, the reviewer was quick in identifying
the language of instruction in Egypt, still it experienced a few of these
factors mentioned above. The reviewer believes that it is very necessary for
any country of the world to have a language of instruction for educational
development. Therefore, the reviewer would like to recommend that irrespective
of the language of instruction adopted for any particular nation, it should not
only consider the diplomatic and socio-economic benefits within and outside the
country, but also the psychological effects on language learners in schools who
would have to contend with incessant educational reforms if the languages of
instruction are inconsistent in their secondary schools.
Abdel-Fattah, M.
A. (2005). Arabic Sign Language: A Perspective. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 10(2).
Ahmed, A. (2006).
The Effect of Using the Whole Language Approach on Developing Some Composition
Writing Skills in English for Experimental Secondary Students in Egypt. Cairo:
Helwan University.
Amin, I., Abdul-Sadeq
ALy, M. & Amin, M. (2011). The Effectiveness of Using an Explicit Language
Learning Strategy-based Instruction in Developing Secondary School Students'
EFL Listening Comprehension Skills. Egypt: Faculty of Education, Benha
University.
Arabsheibani,
G.R. and Manfor, L. (2001). Non-Linearities in Returns to Education in Libya.
Libya:Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Benahnia, A.
(2015). Transnational
Education in Morocco: Current and Future Challenges. Journal
of Education and Practice, 6(11).
Daniel, M.C. and
Ball, A. (n.d.). Contextualizing Multilingualism in Morocco.
Elfatihi, M.
(2006). The
Role of Nonverbal Communication in Beginners’ EFL Classrooms Salé Junior High Schools
as a case. Staff
Development and Research in Higher Education. Ph.D thesis, Sidi Mohamed
Benabdellah University.
Llorent-Bedmar,
V. (2014). Educational Reforms in Morocco: Evolution and Current Status. International Education Studies, 7(12).
Siddiek, A. G.
(2010). Language Situation in Post-War Sudan. International Education Studies 3(3) Published by Canadian Center
of Science and Education.
Torky, S.
(2006). The
Effectiveness of a Task- Based Instruction program in Developing the English
Language Speaking Skills of Secondary Stage Students. A Ph.D thesis submitted
to Women’s college Curricula and Methods
of Teaching Department, Ain Shams University.
REVIEW OF ARTICLES ON LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NORTH AFRICA
Reviewed by IFEDAYO AKINWALERE
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