Communication Research Methods in Journalism and Public Relations
Communication
Research Methods in Journalism and Public Relations
June 8,2017
Introduction
Communication research basically is an
art of scientific investigation or an in-depth academic activity that lays
emphasis on the various aspects of communication.
The development of research in Nigeria has been very slow. Many public and
private organisations do not have a research or development department. In the profession of Journalism and Public Relations,
research should have a special appeal to practitioners because the two
professions required highly functional information in contemporary society. This
is technological age in which speculative reporting of events is vastly
replaced by statistics; scientific findings are taking over from superstitious.
It is hoped that mass communicators who have been
practising their profession in the traditional technique of “who’’ says
“what’’, to “whom’’ “where’’, “how’’ and
“why’’ and to what effect would begin to
think of a different approach to the
practice of their calling (Sobowale, 2008). Sobowale added that the need for
consumer of statistical information disseminated through the mass media, to
fully understand what they read in the paper, listen to on radio or view on
television, cannot be over stated. Unless the consumers of mass media messages
understand the process of gathering and presenting the information they buy,
they may not be able to appreciate the significance of the message to which
they are exposed. Yet they will be expected to act on the basis of such
information.
Journalists
will be looked upon with admiration once the politicians, bureaucrat, religious
bodies, business establishment, social scientists and of course, academicians
are sure that they can be relied upon for accurate forecasting or predictions
of trends in politics, economics, education or agriculture. There
is no profession that does not undertake one form of investigation of another
in a bid to adapt itself to the trends affecting its practice and the society
at large. In fact, the whole world is what it is today because some people had
taken, and some are still taking, the pains to examine why certain things are
what they are. Virtually all inventions are results of researches undertaken by
different individuals or groups in different fields of endeavour. To some
people, research is only a language of sciences. That is not true. Research,
because of its ability to establish relationships between two or more variables
and or phenomena has become an instrument for enhancing not only the quality of
goods and services but also of life and the larger society (Raufu, 2014).
All the professions in Mass
Communication (Journalism, marketing, advertising and Public Relations) make
use of research in almost similar ways. While
Public relations is essentially an art of persuasion and focuses on how to
influence people, disseminating information, maintaining relationship, creating
positive image for organization and its
publics, research in Journalism is undertaken to ascertain coverage areas and
readership etc. This is apart from the
fact that newsgathering itself involves research. Investigative, in-depth etc
reporting explains this fact.
KEY CONCEPTS
Communication:
Communication is derived from the latin words communis, and communicare which translate as common and to share
respectively. This means that communication aims at the sharing of information,
ideas and messages, making them universal. It would appear that this sense of
sharing is easy to achieve in human interaction. This is not always the case in
the complex business world (Ogbulogo, 2004). Communication can also mean
two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not
only exchange (encode-decode) information, news, ideas and feelings but also
create and share meaning. In general, communication is a means of connecting
people or places. In business, it is a key function of management. An
organization cannot operate without communication between levels, departments
and employees. Ogbulogo (2004) defined Communication as a process of
transmitting messages from a source to receivers using a signaling system.
Communication
is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. It can
be Spoken or Verbal Communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or television
and other media. Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we
dress or act - even our scent.
Akpan-Iquot in Etukudo (1986: 202) stated that Americans sees communication
as a process of transmitting messages at a distance for the purpose of control.
The archetypal case of communication then is persuasion, attitude change,
behaviour modification, socialization through the transmission of information,
influence or conditioning. By contrast,
Akpan-Iquot also posited that the European sees
communication studies as a ritual because they consider it as a process through
which shared culture is created, modified and transformed. The archetypal case
of communication is ritual and mythology for those who come at a problem from
anthropology; art and literature- for those who come at the problem from
literary criticism and history. A ritual
view of communication research, it must be noted, is not directed towards the
extension of messages in space, but the maintenance of society in time. It
is not the act of importing information or influence, but the creation,
representation and celebration of shared beliefs. If a transmission view of
communication centers on the extension of messages across geography for
purposes of control, a ritual view centres on the sacred ceremony which draws
person together in fellowship and communality.
Akpan-Iquot added that Mass
communication studies in the United States have found most problematic the
condition under which persuasion occurs. American studies in communication have
centered on mass and interpersonal, have aimed at stating the precise
psychological and sociological conditions under which attitudes are changed,
formed or reinforced; behaviour stabilized or redirected. Specific forms of
culture-art, ritual, journalism- enter the analysis, only indirectly, if at
all. They enter only in so far as they contribute to such sociological
conditions or constitute such psychological forces. Akpan-Iquot made it clear that:
Mass
communication research in the United States can be described as behavioural
research-it is the study of human beings rather than inanimate or non-human
objects.
It is a branch of the behavioural
sciences such as psychology, sociology and anthropology. It is usually seen as
an interdisciplinary research, since it borrows tools and knowledge of various
other fields of study that will help in the understanding of mass communication
problems. It does not confine itself to any particular point of view or body of
theory or subject matter. It may borrow from linguistics, general semantics,
philosophy, economics or any other discipline that might help communication
effectiveness. It is a scientific research-since it uses scientific methodology
in solving communication problems. As in any science, mass communication
research aims at explaining, predicting and controlling. To achieve this
objective, its method must be objective as opposed to subjective, and
systematic as opposed to unsystematic. Mass communications research is
quantitative research.
Randomization,
the laws of probability and mathematical, statistical techniques all help to
make more precise and meaningful the findings from any particular
investigation. This may
not be the only definition of mass communication research, since it tends to
leave out other kinds of research that have been done in the field of
journalism and mass communications.
Having examined the modalities under which mass communications
research have been conducted in Britain and the United States, one could say
that interested Nigerian mass communications practitioners would not be lacking
in references or techniques upon which to base their studies
Akpan-Iquot stated.
Research: Research
can be defined as controlled, systematic, empirical and critical enquiry of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relationship between two or more phenomena. Daramola (2011) defined
research as any kind of study that leads to discovery of new knowledge.
Selltiz, Wrightsman and Cook (1976) cited in Ajala (2009:1) stated that “to
research is to search again, to make another, more careful look, to find out
more.’’ She opined that we need to take another look because something may be
wrong with what we already know; and that we must realise that it is possible
to be right for the wrong reasons. Research as she stated allows us to
accumulate knowledge and make improvement without discarding old wisdom in
favour of new facts. There are some key words in the stated definitions that
need explanation. It is therefore imperative to explain them.
Journalism: Journalism
is the art of gathering, writing and publishing news through the journal. It is
a form of writing that tells people about things that really happened, but which
they might not have known about already. People who write journalism are called
“journalists.” They might work at newspapers, magazines, websites, blogs or for
TV or radio stations. The most important characteristic shared by good
journalists is curiosity. Good journalists love to read, they are curious and
want to find out as much as they can about the world around them.
Journalism
Research: When journalism researchers say
“system”, a kind of unity is taken for granted. For many it is obvious that
journalism is a kind of “communication”. We have no intentions to engender any
doubts. But we shall not accept an epistemological dualism between systems
theory and subject theory in journalism research. It is common use to atomize
the journalism system into general subjects (newsmen, gatekeepers, “our
reader”), and into special subjects (paparazzi, spin-doctors, “noble pens” and
the like. Journalism systems reduced to journalists make sense to common sense.
But subjects are not researchable in journalism, because the concepts of
subjects do not permit to test the identity of journalism systems in their
manifold social, factual and timely dimensions, in reference to politics,
economy, law, ethics, and other environmental systems of world society (Rühl,
2004).
Rühl added that unacceptable for
journalism research is the practice to operate with “communication”,
“behaviour” and “action” as comparable journalistic faculties, or the usage to
operate with gatekeeper research, newsroom research, media research, the research
of attitudes, motives and opinions as theories on the same level of
explanation. Forcing a variety of day-to-day experiences with journalism into
scholarly journalism research, declaring the exercise a success when, with the
help of short-term empirical projects a couple of variables are put through a
sophisticated statistical grinder, selling the product as scholarly knowledge
on journalism - this is not a convincing process of challenging questions on
journalism’s past, present or future problems (Rühl, 2004).
Communication
Research: Communication
research basically is an art of scientific investigation or an in-depth
academic activity that lays stress on the various aspects of communication.
Public Relations:
John Marston (1963) defined public Relations (PR) as “the top management
function which evaluates public attitude, identifies policies and procedures of
an organization with the public interest, and executes programme of action to
earn public understanding and acceptance. This means that in the public relations
discipline, ethics includes values such as honesty, openness, loyalty,
fair-mindedness, respect, integrity, and forthright communication in order to
earn public understanding and acceptance.
Public Relations
performs the vital function of developing relationships with stakeholders as
well as with the public. It should
not be about
disseminating misleading information to make an
organisation or individual
look good. Rather, public
relations functions as a strategic management activity and advises
management on developing, implementing and maintaining
relationships with its public.
The role of public Relations is to
ensure the institution’s reputation is protected and enhanced, while maximizing
opportunities to demonstrate organization’s
desired leadership position. The objective of public relations is to achieve
true dialogue, consent, mutual understanding, and harmony in a complete
openness way. Public Relations is an integral of good management but can only
make its full contribution if practitioners have a comprehensive base of
knowledge and resources (Grunig, 1997).
Systematic Means:
When
something or activity is not done in
a haphazard/disorganized manner, done according to laid down rules and
regulation (procedure), not simple but follow a plan.
Critical Means: A
decisive and crucial way to find out faults.
Empirical Means:
Something
that can be observed, something visible and practical.
Hypothetical
propositions are: Imaginary statement, Statement not
backed by evidence; Statements based on forecast, prediction or conjecture; Statements which may or may not be
true.
Proposition Means:
Plan,
Proposal, suggestion.
Presumed Relations
Are: Belief
held about something, assumption made about something.
Natural Phenomena Refer To: Things that happens
around us, things that we do from time to time, things that we may or may not
see with our eyes, things around us.
Controlled Means:
to
manage or organize under a certain environment. It is an attempt to isolate a
particular variable of interest for investigation.
Elements of
Communication Research
Winner
and Dominic in their book Mass Media
Research said that there are four basic elements of communication research.
These are:
1.
Concept and constructs: A concept is
an abstract idea found by generalizing from particulars and summarizing related
observations. Concepts are important in a communication research, because they
simplify the research process by combining particular characteristics, objects
or people into more general categories. Secondly, it simplifies communication
among those who have a shared understanding of them.
A construct
has three basic characteristics. First of all, it is an abstract idea that is
usually broken down into dimensions represented by lower level concepts. We can
say that construct is a combination of concept. Secondly, a construct cannot be
observed directly. Lastly, a construct is designed for some particular research
purpose so that its exact meaning relates to the context in which it is found.
2.
Measurement: Measurements are
everywhere if a researcher assigns numerals to objects, events or properties
according to certain rules. Numerals have no implicit quantitative meaning. In
mass media research the researchers usually measure indicators of the properties
of individuals or objects.
3.
Variables: Variables are classified
in terms of their relationship with one another. Independent variable and
dependent variable are two major types of variables. Dependent variables are
what the researcher wishes to explain. The researcher systematically varies the
independent variables.
4.
Scale: According to Wimmer and
Dominic, measurement scale is the last basic element of communication research.
A scale represents a composite measure of the variable. It is based on more
than one item. Rating scales are common in mass media research. Some other
scales such as thurstone scale, guttmen scale, likert scale, cementic
differential scales etc are commonly used in media research.
There
are some other important elements which are popular among the communication
researchers. Feedback and feed forward
are commonly used for communication researches.
Feedback plays
an important role in a communication process. When a sender encodes a message
to the receiver and when the receiver does not send any response or feedback to
the sender, then it is not counted that the communication process is complete.
Feedback is needed to know how the communication processes or efforts are
influencing the persons or parties that have been targeted; feedback is also
needed to determine if any improvements or changes are required to be effective
for smooth flow of the process. Audience feedback is always required for all
the media houses. Therefore, many media houses, conduct audience feedback
surveys to improve the quality of their programmes.
Feed forward: Feed
forward is an effective tool that provides individuals or organizations with
suggestions for the future and helps them achieve a positive change in
behaviour, output, quality of production etc. For example, suppose a television
channel or a newspaper is going to launched within a short period. Then the
media organization may conduct a survey as to what kind of programmes the
target audience want to watch or what types of news they want to read in a newspaper.
After analyzing the collected data from the survey, the media organization
prepares the programmes or the news sections depending on the feed forward. It
is widely used to determine the nature of programmes/news. Basically, feed
forward means the response about a certain event or activity being carried out
which is acquired in advance by utilizing different methods.
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
IN JOURNALISM
As
a scientific area, Journalism has been beset with the scarcity of specialized
manuals for guidance regarding methodologies and procedures adopted in research
practices. Journalism research is a field of activity undergoing constant
progress and evolution, (Nafziger, 1949)
cited in (Machado, 2010) argued that the scientific work in the area
cannot be limited to descriptions or explanations of how things are done or how
the press, radio and movies operate, but should also include historical
studies, examine critically the social aspect as well as the market value of
communication practices and services, and explore the relations of the
communication media with other fields of study.
The
most significant development in the study of Journalism has probably been the
recent progress in the use of new methods and procedures deriving from
disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology and political science
for comprehension of its problems. Based on the possibility of the utilization
of scientific methods for resolving problems involving professional practice
and research,
(Machado,
2010) quoted Nafziger stating that the development of Journalism research led
gradually to the incorporation of the four stages of scientific method:
1.) Search for the facts, research by
observation and experiment
2.)
Formulation of theories to explain the data;
3.)
Analysis of the material and
4.)
Testing the theory and checking the data.
Nigerian
media practitioners can no longer rely on personal contacts with people of the
community, through informal means; or through experience. According to Akpan-Iquot these unsystematic,
informal, intuitive methods are no longer adequate for the following reasons:
1. The Increasing Number of
Communication Media: In present day Nigeria, an average
citizen has access to many media communications-local and out-of-town
newspapers, at least one television station; radio station, magazines books and
movie houses.
2. Increasing Competition among the
Media for Attention: Since no individual has enough time to read or
listen to all media, or even pay attention to all the output from one medium,
this means a small fraction of available output will be selected and the rest
ignored. This leads to intense competition among the different media to capture
as much of the public’s time and attention as possible. Obviously, the
newspaper or magazine or radio, television station, website, blog that succeeds
in satisfying the needs of the public, whose messages are interesting and easy
to absorb, will get a good share of public attention.
3. The Increasing Number of People in
the Audience: An editor or broadcaster has several
thousand readers, viewers or listeners, and the tendency is constantly toward
larger audiences. No communicator can possibly have a personal contact with
everyone in the audience and knowledge of all their varying needs, likes,
dislikes and opinions.
4. The Changing Tastes of the Public: Nigerians
are becoming increasingly better educated and sophisticated. They travel more,
know more about the rest of the world, and are constantly developing broader
interests through exposure to more communications from outside their immediate
environment. Decisions cannot and should not be based on what was known to be
true ten years ago. The public is constantly changing in taste and mood.
The
above are good reasons why the effective communicator, whether public relations
officer, an editor, or a broadcaster-can no longer rely on hunches and
intuition alone to capture and hold the attention of the public.
As
Harry Henry says in his work, Motivation
Research cited in Akpan-Iquot
(1986: 202):
“There are examples
of course, of ‘hunch-merchants’ who hit on successful ideas with enormous
success, and finish up as classic case histories. But no case histories are
written up of the 99 equally self-confident but not so lucky ventures whose
only spell of glory is in brief trips to the bankruptcy court.”
Modern
media practitioners are turning more and more to communication research, a
specialty that has grown up in the past two decades to help answer some of the
questions they do not have the time or training to answer for themselves. The
communication researcher is just one member of the team of writers, editors,
artists, public relation practitioner, advertising specialists- working
together to help a medium do its job- which is to transmit information to a
mass public.
Areas of Communication
Research
In
journalism and public relations, the volume of communications research has developed
in recent years as an increasing number of scholars have been attracted to the
stated discipline. Two trends have accompanied this growth. The breadth of
communications research has grown as scholars with varying interests have
delved into and investigated different
areas-those of political communication, consumer interests, and media
economics; and the depth of communication research has increased as scholars
taking different avenues have tended to specialize within one area or another. As
a result, communications research could be divided in a number of approaches.
One approach is to categorize research within the four aspects of the communications
process: the communicator, the message, the channel and the audience (Akpan-Iquot, 1986).
In addition, the stated process takes place in an environment, hence the need
to add environmental/trend research.
Types of Research
within Each Category
It
is not enough to be called a mass communicator, just because we have training
in one or more areas of communications.
Communicator
Research: This type of research helps us to determine the
performance of the practitioners. In one study, it was discovered that stories
resulting from assignments by editors were more accurate than those originated
by the reporters or stemming from coverage of meetings. Another study revealed
that news personnel with “supportive images” (establishment-oriented) reported
so-called good news more accurately than bad news, whereas those with critical
images on the society did a more accurate job on bad news.
Message
Research: Another way to look at this is the content analysis.
With scientific methodology, the research can determine the relative degree of
the difficulty of any message and inferences can be made about the intent of
the communicator as well.
Media/Channel
Research: The channel through which a message is
transmitted is closely related to the effectiveness of the message. This is due
in part to the differing characteristics of the various media, which perform
somewhat differently the functions of informing, interpreting, entertaining and
selling. By their character, content, style, and geographic coverage, media, to
a great extent, are able to select their desired audiences. We know readily
which newspapers in Nigeria have a more national appeal and which ones do not.
Advertisers are especially interested in which media can best deliver their
messages and in knowing something about the people who comprise the potential
audience of a medium. And, in face-to-face communication, we often use facial
expressions-a smile, for example-to a much greater advantage than a flow of
pleasant words.
Communication channels are vital ways through which
government can determine and measured. People expressed their opinion on issues
of local or national importance through radio, television, newspapers,
magazines, billboards, leaflets, internet among others. A good and listening
government would deem it necessary to explore all the channels of communication
to determine opinion on issues.
In the modern society, mass media have a significant
influence in opinion formation. Media is the plural of medium. Mass media refer
to a variety of means of communication that is devoid of personal interaction
between the encoders and decoders (senders and recipients) of the messages. The
media of communication such as radio, television, newspapers, magazine,
internet, textbooks are very powerful. Many government officials, and many
citizens, look to the media (print and electronic) to understand the views of
the public on issues of national interest. The electronic media appeal to both
literate and the illiterate members of our society. The media are important in
understanding people’s opinions. They
are important in determining the political agenda (what people in the
government are thinking about) and in framing the issues (how the issues are
being considered).
The print media are also important as channels of
opinions from editorialists, columnists, and ordinary people who write letters
to the editor. Most large newspapers print the opinions of their editors and
run the articles of the progressive and conservative columnists. Most also
print letters to the editor that that allow ordinary people the power to
express any opinion. Some magazines, such as Tell and the News to some degree
cover politics in an essentially nonpartisan manner, but there are many more
magazines that represent practically any political point of view in Nigeria
political field.
Modern information technologies such as internet (Facebook,
Twitter among others) and cable TV have made it possible for the actual
realisation of making the entire world a global village. It is possible for a
very large crowd of audience to be divided and approached as a smaller group of
people with specialised interest.
The new technology has a lot of impact and
implication for human activities. In the past before the advent of new
technology, the audiences of mass media used to be anonymous and unidentified
without direct means of responding to media messages. It is now possible to
respond direct to some radio, television and internet programmes. The feedback
can be through phone call especially during phone in programmes on radio and TV
and internet chatting system.
Nowadays, Nigerians are becoming more political
conscious than ever before. Articles in The Punch, The Guardian, The Nation
newspapers or on popular websites/blogs have a great influence on the
underlying predisposition of Nigerian electorates. The rate at which the youth
pay attention to news especially political news, on the internet is improving
every day in day out. The internet has become a veritable platform for
political discussion among the new generation of Nigerians. Sometimes
apolitical journals of professional bodies such as Nigerian Labour Congress,
Nigerian Medical Associations, and Nigerian Union of Teachers can have
influence that would shape political landscape especially in policy making.
Audience
Research: The bulk of journalism or communications research is
concerned with mass media audiences. Communicators need to know the behaviour,
interests, tastes, attitudes, and opinions of the people whom they seek to
reach. Most public relations practitioner and advertisers would like to know
the number and description of people in a medium’s audience so they may reach
so they may reach the right kind of person for their products. Where market
research is taken seriously, a manufacturer of, say, a babies food may want to
learn which of two magazines or newspapers with equal circulation has the large
number of young married women. Publishers and editors require audience
information so they may select editorial content that fits their readers’
needs. Young readers tend to be different from adult readers, according to
studies. Researchers have also gone beyond simply describing the audience of
mass media; they are seeking to determine the gratifications people derive from
using the media. Still, others are focusing on children of different ages,
trying to learn how children understand what they see and hear on television.
Environmental/Trend
Research: Researchers, politicians and organisations do carry
out environmental scanning. In advanced
world, this type of research is being carried out on regular basis. It involves
finding out major and minor issues that are more likely going to affect the
activities, operations, existence, survival and profitability and growth of the
society or organisation. It is important because the person has to continually
inform the organisation on the trends, issues, using the hard facts and figures
generated. It is also essential because it provides the necessary information
that organisation executives, politicians and government officials will
utilized in public speeches and interviews.
If the people who refuse to answer, or are never
reached, have the same characteristics as the people who do answer, then the
final results should be unbiased. If the people who do not answer have
different opinions, then there is bias in the results. In terms of election
polls, studies suggest that bias effects are small, but each polling firm has
its own techniques for adjusting weights to minimize selection bias.
RESEARCH
METHODS IN JOURNALISM
Formal Methodologies for carrying out
research are usually categorized into quantitative
and qualitative methods. Formal methods are generally more systematic in
approaches than informal strategies. Formal methods are likely to be carried
out by social scientist scholars who understand their uses and who are less
likely than politicians or other non-scholars to misuse, abuse or exploit them
or misinterpret them as representing mass public opinion.
Quantitative
methods involve numbers and usually statistics. That is the interpretation and
presentation of the final analysis of quantitative method are recorded in
figures and backed up with few words or sentences. Most public research is
conducted quantitatively, almost always by surveys. Quantitative study measures
level of occurrence, studies actions, it is objective; asks questions without
revealing a point of view, provides proof, measures levels of actions and
trends, describes, asks "How many?" and "How often? The use of
quantitative methods focused on content analysis of the media and on audience
response the Communication content.
Although qualitative research methodologies have a
propensity to be less important in academic research, they are often very
important when politicians and candidates conduct research for their own
reasons. One qualitative methodology, focus group discussions, is used
extensively by politicians as before and during electioneering campaigns. It
provides depth of understanding, studies motivations, it Is subjective; probes
individual reactions to discover underlying motivations, enables discovery, Is
exploratory, allows insights into
behavior and trends Interprets, asks "Why?".
Another way of
categorizing Methods in Communication research methods in journalism are: survey,
content analysis, historical, focus group, in-depth interview, textual analysis,
internet research among others.
SURVEY
This is a method of research that is suitable to
find out people’s current attitudes, opinions and appropriate for describing
and predicting their behaviour. Many researchers consider survey research as
the most important way to learn about public opinion. This method centres on people
and suitable to study a large population. Survey research seeks to provide
empirical data collected from a population of respondents on a whole number of
issues. Some researchers believe that survey research is the only way to learn
about or carry out public opinion research, and they give over all, or almost
all, of their analysis of public opinion to the analysis of survey research
Method.
Survey method is the most frequently used by
researchers and the basic instrument for
this kind of research is the questionnaire. It standardizes and organizes
the gathering, arrangement and processing of data to obtain desirable
information. In the process of employing questionnaire as a tool, there is the
chance for asking identical or very similar questions from large population.
TYPES
OF SURVEY
There are chiefly three ways to survey people:
face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, and mail surveys among others.
Questionnaire
Questionnaire is one of the useful tools in survey
research method. The questionnaire is an important instrument for obtaining
information from people concerning their perception, opinion, attitudes and
behaviour in survey studies. It is a research instrument through which a
researcher communicates needs to a group of respondents, stimulates responses,
and present data in a form that is meaningful for analysis. It simply means the
collection or the total number of questions asked or material used to get
answers to question posed to respondents. Under normal condition, questionnaire
consists of one or more printed or type written sheets on which questions for
respondents are written.
Identification
of the Universe/Population
There is the need for the researcher to determine
the population of his study. The population to be survey must be clearly
defined. That is, he /she must find out whose opinions are to be sampled and
how many respondents are required.
Sampling Frame
and Sampling Size
Sampling is done in order that the researcher may
take some elements, subjects or respondents in his population to represent that
population (Sobowale, 2014: 37). Sampling frame refers to complete list of all
elements in the population of the study. If the population of a study is the
students of University of Lagos, it then means that all the students of the
institution starting from number 1 to the last number (1-last number). If the
population of a study is the editions of the Guardian newspaper for the month
of September, it means that the sample frame is 1- 30 copies of the Guardian,
because there are 30 days in the month of September.
Out of the total population, there is the need to
select sample size that would be used for the study. The sample size is the
fractional and selected part of the population that represents the entire
population.
THE METHOD OF
SELECTING SAMPLE SIZE
The
method of selecting sample size can either be probability or non-probability
sampling.
Probability Sampling
Probability sample refers to samples that are
selected or chosen in line with mathematical rules and regulations. That is
there is mathematical guideline that must be followed in selecting or choosing
samples for research studies and when this is followed to the letter, it is
referred to as probability sampling. It is a sampling method whereby the chance
for the selection of each unit of the population to be known. Under this type
of sampling method, everybody (unit) in the population has the chance of being
selected. There is a chance mechanism that every element of the population is
subjected to.
(1)
Non
Probability Sampling
Non probability sampling does not allow the
operation of chance mechanism. It does not adhere to mathematical guidelines.
The main characteristic the differentiate probability sample from non
probability sample is that while probability sample gives researcher chance to
calculate the amount of sampling error, non-probability does not give room for
that. This sampling technique is applicable when the sampling frame in a study
is not specific.
There Are
Different Types Of Probability Sampling Methods, These Are:
Simple
random sampling, Systematic random sampling, Stratified sampling, Cluster
sampling, and Multi-stage sampling
Simple Random
Sampling
This is the type of sampling method that allows each
unit in the universe or population to have equal chance of being selected. It
is the most widely used probability sampling method. This is often employed
when a small amount of sample is to be taken for research work. Random sampling
uses the principle of randomisation which is simply a procedure of giving every
unit or subject in a population an equal chance of appearing in selection.
Systematic
Random Sampling
This sampling method is otherwise called sampling
with a random start. It is arrived at this way. You arrange all the elements of
a population and choose every Nth on from the serially listed population
subject or units. Note that the N is any number usually determined by dividing
the population by the required sample size Tejumaiye (2003:62).
Adamu-Iria
(2006:134) stated that:
Systematic
Random Sampling is the easiest-to-use method for approximating a random sample.
This is a sample in which every Kth item in the sampling frame is selected
after a random start among the first K elements.
For example, a researcher decides to study opinions
of people expressed in Tell and Newswatch magazines between 2006 and 2010 on
pages of editorial column (letter to the editor) on how to eradicate HIV/AIDS.
The target population for this study consisted of all editions of Tell and
Newswatch magazines from January 2012 to December 2016, both magazines publish
weekly. Each magazine has 52 editions per a year. In five years a magazine
publishes 260 editions.
Therefore, 520 editions of both magazines is the
population of the study. Since it is not possible to study the entire editions
of both magazines (population), a sample size of 130 is selected by systematic
random sampling. The sample size selected is manageable and represents the
entire population.
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Its major
unit of analysis in content analysis remains to be written messages, radio,
television programmes and other records (Daramola, 2011: 113). Ajala (2009:31)
defined content analysis as a systematic, objective and quantitative procedure
devised to examine the content of recorded information. Newspaper/magazines,
oral messages, company publication as well as television radio programme and
internet contents can be content analyzed.
Unlike experimentation, observation and survey which
have animal or human behaviour as the focal point of study, content analysis
focuses on the manifest content of communication (Sobowale, 2008: 18). Analysing the manifest content of printed
works and oral messages in magazines, newspapers, radio, television among
others require thorough knowledge of the ways and manners of categorizing the
messages and statistical calculations. It is very important to understand the
population of the study which may be magazines, books, newspapers, leaflets, CD
ROM for a particular message to be content analysed. In addition, sample of the
edition of magazine or newspaper must be selected through simple random,
systematic random or any of the sampling methods explained earlier so as to
reduce the work load by the researcher. The next line of action is to determine
the content category and unit of analysis.
OBSERVATION
METHOD
Observation is a method of harnessing data which
requires watching people’s activities or actions. It may be to find out how a
group of people carries out certain activities and why they do it. This method
is usually used in exploration and investigation of social challenges. Depending
on the type of activity concerned, a researcher who intends to observe event
may not wish to be noticeable or act in a manner that people around would
suspect his mission. He may wish to be participant observer. This method was
pioneered by anthropologists and ethnographers. This method entails researcher
to live with the people, group or party he wish to study. That is he part take
in every activity of the group. He may also decide not to participate actively
and stay apart to watch the activities of the group under study and note the
details. In this case, the researcher is conspicuous and does not mind if
people around are conscious of his mission. This is known as non-participant
observation (Raufu, 2014).
Patton (1990:203-5) quoted in Berger (2000:305),
stated that observational data are attractive as they afford the researcher the
opportunity to gather “live’’ data from “live’’ situations. The researcher is
given the opportunity to look at what is taking place in situ rather than at second hand. This enables researchers to
understand the context of programmes, to be open ended and inductive, to see
things that might otherwise be unconsciously missed, to discover things that
participants might not freely talk about in interview situations, to move
beyond perception-based data (e.g. opinions in interviews) and to access
personal knowledge. Because observed incidents are less predictable there is
certain freshness to this form of data collection that is often denied in other
forms e.g. questionnaire or a test.
As experimentation, observation can be discussed
under two subheadings: participant and non-participant observation.
Participant
Observation
When a member of Super Eagles carries out a study of
his team without revealing his motive while doing that is refers to as
participant observation. Participant observation is an intensive and more
involved method of gathering data through observation. That is, a participant
observer is a member of the group he is trying to observe. According to
Sobowale (2008: 12), Participant observation is an intensive and more involved
way of gathering information.
On the other hand it could be Non-participant Observation. Here the researcher observes from vantage
position without participating in the activities of the subject of research.
FOCUS
GROUP METHOD
Focus group
is a qualitative method of generating information about target audiences’
feelings, beliefs, attitude, perception and opinion about issues. It is a
controlled group discussion where six to twelve (6-12) people with fairly
analogous characteristics in term of age, sex, education, profession and others
are interview simultaneously with a moderator leading the respondents in a
relatively unstructured manner.
The moderator in a focus group mediates and directs
the discussion from a list of broad questions and this enables participants to
introduce new dimension to the topic under discussion. The moderator poses open
ended questions while each member of the group contributes his or her
responses, comments, feelings as well as reacts to other participants’
contributions, feelings or comments. The discussion session is recorded on
video or audio tape. With this method, it is easy to follow-up on important
points that participant raise in the course of discussion. The moderator has
the opportunity of shedding light on and clearing up confusing responses from
participants.
INTERVIEW
Interview is probably human’s oldest and most often
used method of acquiring information. It is the method through which the
interviewer poses questions to interviewee and records his/her responses. Both
the interviewer and interviewee communicate with each other through verbal
interaction and the non-verbal signs (gesture, body language, facial
expressions).The non verbal signs add more meanings to verbal responses,
therefore it is important that it is well monitored and adequately interpreted
by interviewer. Interview can be conducted through face-to-face, mail,
telephone, and through any of the current social medial such e-mail, as face
book, twitter, YouTube, LinkedIn among others.
In every society, people are sources of information
to reporter. Every interaction between reporter and his sources of information
entails interview. Reporting is with gathering, editing and disseminating
information to the public. Interview is an important tool employed by reporter
to squeeze information from people before passing it on to the public. Okoye
(1998:63) stated that interviewing is the act of taping other human sources for
information which will be incorporated in the write up. Those usually
interviewed by newsmen include key players in the news, victims, winners,
losers, eye-witnesses, relatives, neighbours and associates of those involved.
The purpose of interview is to elicit as much as
relevant information as regard opinions. It is a veritable way of gathering data
of the people on issues. The method cut across both literate and illiterate
members of the society. That is, both literate and illiterates can respond to
face-to-face interview if well conducted in the language understood by the
interviewee.
VOX POP
Vox pop is a useful source of news is a Vox pop. It
is a means through which the opinion on issue(s) of public interest can be expressed.
It is the ideas and opinions of ordinary people on a particular subject or
burning issue of the day, collected by media reporters. VOX POP is a popular
opinion on matter/topic/subject/issue of public interest as represented by
informal comments from members of the public, especially when broadcast through
radio, television, internet or published on the pages of
newspapers/magazine/leaflets for the general public. It can be accomplished
where journalists or special researchers go out into the street to ask members
of the public for their views on matters of current public interest.
The Media Use
Vox Pops for the Following:
1. To test public opinion and reaction
2. To
influence decision-makers
3. To stimulate public debate
4. To forecast results of events
5. To generate data for events/study
6. To promote media stations such as newspaper,
radio or television station, blog, website and make it more popular.
Writing Research
Report
Although given the task of writing an interesting
story, the reporter must seek to humanise the story for spelling out to the
readers /audience what the story means to them in clear and simple language.
That is, simple form of common language of communication. The reporter must
find out what the outcome of the survey mean or may mean eventually to the
average persons and then provide the details that are necessary to give a
layman a closer picture or clear understanding of the research.
A reporter may write an incomplete report if sources
are unwilling to give out adequate information. In addition, researcher /writer
should stay clear of the politics of a specific community in order not to be
partial or partisan. In most cases, sources tend to conceal information from
writer/researcher who that favours opposing camp/group. At times, announcement
of result of study can be premature and create unjustified optimism in
audience/readers. Writers must be careful not to over familiarise the
importance of results of study they are reporting.
Once you have analysed the results of the survey,
you must treat them like the raw materials for any news story. Pretend that you
have just come across them for the first time; look at them; assess their news
worth; decide on the most newsworthy angle and make that your introduction. Obviously
the story must be presented to the audience as a normal news story, written in
words. You cannot throw a mountain of statistics at them and expect them to
decipher and understand. However, researcher has presented the most interesting
information in a well-written news story format; he can give detailed
information in tabular format to the end. The readers who are particularly
interested can do some of their own interpretation and analysis from his
statistics.
PUBLIC
RELATIONS RESEARCH
Research
in Public Relations is not a separate subject; it is the very essence of
successful public relations activity, since it collates the past and present
experience of all concerned (Black, 2011). In Nigeria, Public Relations has
become a strategic management function. Many Nigerian organizations either have
full public relations departments or retain the services of PR consultants. PR
is now acknowledged as a major tool in achieving social, economic and political
goals and objective of organization and individuals (Onabajo, 2002). The nature
of Public Relations practice dictates that any practitioner who is really worth
his ‘claim’ should base his activities on sound research. Anything short of
this will deprive the practitioner his rightful position as the ‘eyes’ and ‘ears’
of the organisation (Raufu, 2014).
Public relations is essentially an
art of persuasion, and in order to influence people it is obviously helpful to
know as much as possible about the way in which people think and the manner in
which they react to particular circumstances (Black, 2011). Black stated that
experience and intuition will provide an answer to the way in which people
think and the manner in which they react to particular circumstances, but where
it is desirable to obtain more factual or statistical data, it is necessary to
employ the techniques of motivation research, opinion research and market
research which have been evolved to provide the answers to problems of this
kind. It becomes imperative therefore to examine the relevance of research to the
practice of Public Relations.
As stated earlier, Raufu agreed
that research is a phenomenon that cuts across all the stages in Public
Relations programme planning such as Research
for Problem Identification and Analysis; Research for planning; Research for
Communication; Research for Monitoring; and Research for evaluation.
RESEARCH
FOR PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS
One very great and valuable asset
to any progressive organisation is Objective Communicator because often, he
based his actions and recommendations on objective research. Ironically, he is
often seen as threat by some members of the Organisation because the objective
communicator is ever ready to draw attention to existing or potential problems
as a result of the fact that he is armed with information obtained through
research. Since Public Relations thrive on truth, knowledge and full
information, public relations planning have always been successfully executed
where and when problem identification and analysis has been properly done as a
starting point for solving organisational problems. A problem identified is a
problem half solved.
Problem identified involves probing
deeply to elicit the opinions, attitude and reactions of all stakeholders and
or people concerned with acts and policies of the organisation; this covers
both internal and external publics.
Raufu (2014) stated that problems
identification starts with the following:
·
Asking questions from internal publics,
especially employees, with sincerity and taking their responses in good faith
because they know the institution better than anyone else.
·
Listening to voices of dissent within
the organisation is a very important means of getting goods clues to areas of
weakness of the organisation. Never treat these people with disdain.
·
Playing “the devil’s advocate” by asking
hard questions about proposed actions in anticipation of possible reactions
from various publics.
·
Embarking on Communication Audit
(Internal and External) as part of normal monitoring.
·
Prelude before major changes are
anticipated to serve as benchmark for measuring internal and external attitude
in the future.
·
Anticipating and or confronting crises.
The PRE has two alternative here:
(i) To
anticipate crisis as a means of problems identification
(ii) To identify and confront crisis that has already reared its head.
Having
identified the problem the next line of action for a Public Relations Executive
(PRE) is to dissect the problem so that he
can get to the root of the problem.
Problem analysis involves step-by-step process which includes:
·
State what has happened in clear,
unambiguous and declarative sentences.
·
Unearth the cause(s) through
formal/informal research.
·
After identification, state the cause(s)
in clear, simple sentence(s).
·
State the desirable outcome or what
specifically you want the outcome to be” in a simple, clear sentence.
·
Set other possible outcomes and goals.
·
Project ahead and set possible
consequences
·
Examine pros and cons of the possible
consequences.
The next stage is planning because
once all the above steps have been carefully taken, it becomes easy to draw
lines towards solving the problem.
RESEARCH
FOR PLANNING
This state is very important in PR programming
because it serves as the basis for eventual implementation of PR program.
Planning
requires:
·
A searching look backward
to determine all the factors which led to the situation under study.
·
A deep look inside in
which assembled facts and opinions are considered in the light of the
organisation’s objectives and their (facts and opinions) validity weighed.
·
A wide look around in
which there is study of similar situations in similar organisations including
political, social and economic trends, and the mood of the time.
·
A long look ahead in
which goals for organisation and for implementing the programme are set.
Planning
is predicated on adequate knowledge of
the issue/problem; the organisation’s goals and objectives, the nature of the
organisation’s publics and how the publics view the organisation. Research is required to facilitate this
understanding, so that ultimately the right audience gets the right message at
the right time.
ISSUE
FORECASTING
Issue forecasting is an important trend
in PR planning. Issue forecasting centres on the premise that an organisation
takes a look into the future to predict how its public might react to “a future
event, trend or controversy” using available (collected) data as criterion for
assessment. The purpose of issue
forecasting is to prepare the organisation pro-active or preventive PR against
eventualities and prevent crisis. Issue
forecasting is essentially the research portion of Issue Management and
Environment Scanning. To establish a
sound issue-management system, research is very essential.
Kerry Tucker and Bill Trumptheler
(1993) cited in (Raufu, 2014) suggested a five step plan to establish a sound
issue-management system.
(i) Anticipate
issues and establish priorities by asking the following questions – What
changes do we foresee in economics, government and politics, social trends;
technology? Where and what are the likely competition.
(ii) As soon as priorities are set, analyse issues by developing a
formal situational analysis or issue brief.
(iii) Recommendation position(s) for the organisation on issues.
(iv) Identify
publics, to identify specifically those opinion leaders who can advance your
course and position.
(v) Identify
desired behaviour/attitudes of the publics and opinion leaders.
UNDERSTANDING
THE PUBLIC
Having identified the problem and
its cause and/or forecast possible issue, the next thing is to learn about the
publics involved. There arises the need therefore, to explore such areas as:
·
Profile of the public
·
Location of the public
·
How each public is affected by the
issue.
·
The socio-economic status of the publics
to determine.
·
The dynamics of the publics – How do
they act collectively.
·
Areas that present points of conflict of
the Interest among divergent publics. This is important because each public may
react in different way to the same issue.
It is important that the right
programme is planned for the right public at the right time if there must be
success. The public is very important
and every public is invaluable therefore, public relations officer should never
overlook any public.
EXPLORING
THE PUBLIC
The PR executive must know his
various publics just as he must appreciate their importance in the existence of
his organisation, and he has to explore them to succeed. In exploring these
publics, two tasks are involved for the PRE. The tasks are:
(i) Prioritizing
the publics by issues
(ii) Interpreting their behaviours
(i) Prioritizing the Public by issues
It is not all the publics that are most
important in every planning situation.
Therefore the PRE must identify and decide which the major publics are
and which are the minor in every planning situation.
Each issue must affect some publics
more than others, as such the publics affected most by a particular issue must
be on a top of the priority list while others become minor. This priority list is however not static
because when another issue generates, the need has automatically arisen for a
revision and general re-ordering of the publics according to their importance
as far as the new issue is concerned. Public
relations practitioner must never offend any of your publics because that
public is not on top of priority list currently.
Prioritizing the publics by issues
is all about “deciding which public has to be appealed to most effective and
figuring out how to do that while offending the other least”.
The PRE must be very sensitive
about “what these publics know and what they think they know”.
Research
helps the PRE in finding:
·
How much of real facts a public has?
·
What rumours the public has embraced?
·
What myths it holds?
·
How the public is likely to think
·
What the public might do etc.
·
The dynamics of the publics.
Different
approaches have been used and are still being used by various organizations’ PR
department to get answer to the above questions. They include:
·
Survey – to measure public dynamic on
issue and problem
·
CEO – Employees conference / dialogue
·
Manager – Employees dialogue
·
Exco/Management – Employee one-on-one
meetings
·
Management – Consumer interactions
·
Manager – Group (Employees) problems
review meeting
·
Management – Suppliers interaction.
·
Upward Communication between actual
workers and management to effect necessary changes in existing set-up etc.
PERCEIVED
LEVEL OF INVOLVEMENTS:
This variable
explains that a person seeks information if he is involved in a situation. On
the other hand he only processes the information if he is not involved. These
four variables are important in determining the extent to which an organisation
can go in preparing information for any particular pubic. Whether a public is
information seeking or information processing will guide the PRE in determining
how to invest in preparing PR media. PRE
media includes publications; brochures, films, magazines, exhibitions, internal
TV etc. Research is conducted to determine all of these variables to be able to
effectively plan and executive Public Relations programme.
RESEARCH
FOR COMMUNICATION
A common mistake
in discussing Public Relations is to assume that PR is the same thing as
publicity. This explains why many an
organisation would assume that a successful journalist would function
effectively well as Public Relations Executive. No doubt publicity is important
in Public Relations but its value could be lost if proper research is not
conducted to determine its effective and efficient use.
Publicity is
merely the “exposure aspect of the concept communication in PR whereas
communication is the umbrella. Communication is so invaluable in Public
Relations programming that a slight misuse of it could wreak irreparable damage
on the Public Relations programme and in fact, the image of the Organisation.
To ensure a successful professional planning and use communication, there is a
need for thorough research.
According
to Raufu (2014), Public Relations Research for communication must focus on such
issues as:
·
The communicator
·
The message
·
The audience and
·
Planning media use.
THE
COMMUNICATOR
Using
appropriate communicator is important. As such, research is necessary to
isolate such factors as: Competence of the person to discuss the issue
"Acceptability in terms of association with or membership of the group or
audience, etc. This is an important factor in determining the success of any
programme. Research in communication has
indicated that lack of credibility on the part of the communicator often
lessens the probability of favourable change.
THE
MESSAGE
This is
contingent on the nature of the problem and the nature of the audience. The important thing however is that facts
must be dug on which to base the messages.
Examples must also be isolated and used as back up for the available
facts.
Message
development is easy when there is a clear understanding of:
- the details about the issue
- the nature and structure of the public
- the nature of the audience
- the objective of the campaign etc
This re-requisite
understanding is provided by fact finding/research.
THE
AUDIENCE
The audience
must be understood clearly so that it could be planned for, effectively:
·
What is the audience are of interest?
·
What constitutes the area of conflict of
interest?
·
What do they know?
·
What are their beliefs?
·
How emotionally attached are they to the
issue?
·
How committed are they to the opinion
they are currently holding?
·
What other multi-various external
influences are they subjected to?
·
What is at stake for the audience?
·
What rewards are in for the audience?
Etc
These are necessary
questions which must be answered if the audience must be influenced in any way,
objective and sincere answers are required to enable the PRE do thorough and
successful job. Research provides the viable alternative to finding answers’ to
these questions. It is only when this
has been done that action can be taken towards media planning.
MEDIA
PLANNING
Different publics use
different media. Therefore, the PRE must
plan his media in accordance with the nature and structure of his public and
audience. At this stage, fact-finding is necessary to:
·
Know how people use media
·
Know media people use generally
·
Know who are the users of what media
·
Identify media channels used by the
target publics then
·
Pre-test the messages so as to determine
if they would be understood by the publics when the communication is fully
launched.
·
Know the frequency and coverage of the
channel/media, etc.
Fact-finding about
media characteristics as itemised above could be sourced from reference
publications e.g. Rate and Data cards. ABC i.e. Audit Bureau of Circulation is
another viable source. Some media also
make available reports of researches they had conducted in such areas as stated
above. These may be used by PRES in taking
their decisions.
RESEARCH
FOR MONITORING
This involves keeping
up with events to ensure success.
Monitoring is meant to avert possible problems; to checkmate unforeseen
threats as well as provide alternatives in the fact of mistakes and in some cases
to manage sabotage from competitors. Monitoring is a fact-finding process that
must be built into planning Public Relations programmes. It involves constant
and specific check on results that ensures the campaign is monitored as it is
being carried out. Monitoring provides
opportunity for instant feedback(s) in the course of the programme.
Whereas evaluative
research is performed at the conclusion of a campaign to determine its degree
of success, monitoring is an on-going exercise that often reveals specific
problem areas before they snowball into crises.
Therefore, monitoring stage is NOT evaluation stage in PR planning.
The
Focuses of Research for Monitoring include:
·
Monitoring media use of your news
release i.e. Reading newspapers/magazines to determine whether a news release
was published and on what page. Finding
out whether the community people are aware of and benefiting from a CSR
programme being put in place for them as part of your PR programme.
·
Listening to/watching the broadcast stations
for news items that need be included in the days of news packages and the time
of use.
·
Establishing the numbers of those who
responded to the message
·
Finding out whether a public’s behaviour
is being changed.
·
Monitoring your opponent’s moves (especially
his media use) to determine how they affect your programme and how to re-adjust
your programme.
·
Checking and ensuring that billboards
are placed in the right place(s) at the right time etc.
·
Establishing the circulation, reach an
audience size.
·
Environmental monitoring to know when
your organisation’s activities constitute nuisance to the public e.g. through
environmental pollutions damaging or blocking of community roads, depositing of
toxic wastes etc.
RESEARCH
FOR EVALUATION
It is necessary to re-state
that this final stage in PR planning; and it can also serve as the beginning of
a new and another research process. Its
purpose is to provide an estimate of objective achievement and indicate where
and how subject may persist. In other words evaluation is used to assess
whether and by how much each goal of any PR programme is achieved.
Research
for evaluation is conducted to measure such results as:
·
Behavioural shift
·
Perception shift
·
Other effects of PR efforts on
Organisation’s publics particularly the most important public.
·
Level of accomplishment of campaign
objective;
·
How the accomplishment of certain goals
has modified or changed the management’s overall objective;
·
Identify success or failure of the
executed programme in reaching the planned point.
Often evaluation leads
logically to the development of a new planning programme as it reveals, most of
the time, new problems and or other unexplored areas such require situation
analysis. At this point a new cycle of
PR programme planning activities begins.
Public Relations research is an on-going exercise. According to Black
(2011: 124), this means a series of surveys may be monthly, quarterly or every
6 months, to record trends. He added that this can be plotted on a graph to
show how the situation was changing.
PR
RESEARCH PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES
For whichever stage of
PR planning a research is conducted, it must endeavour to follow standard
procedural course. Incidentally PR is not the only profession restricted to the
use of this formal procedure. Because PR is a social science which seeks to
evaluate and analyse people’s attitude in line with trends of activities, it
follows that it must attempt to a scientific method of discovering and
analysing facts, a situation peculiar to all science and social science
activities. However, informal and exploratory methods are still used in PR
research. This suggests that PR research
could be either formal or informal or both, depending on the nature of the
problem.
INFORMAL
RESEARCH
These do not follow the
formal systematic, approaches to finding answers to research questions. The informal research takes a course of
investigation different from the scientific method to explore cause and effects
of issues and problems. Kerlinger (1973) identifies four methods of finding
answers to research questions as: Tenacity, Intuition, Authority and Science
and Wimmer and Dominick (1987:364) distinguished “science” as the formal
method, thus leaving the other as the informal methods.
Tenacity:
Presupposes that something is true because it has always been true. The bottom-line of this approach is that
“nothing changes”.
Intuition:
also known as apriori proposition, the approach is predicated on the assumption
that something is true because it is “self-evident” or “stands to reason”.
Authority:
This approach emphasises the source of information and not the method that
source adopted to get the information.
Here, the belief is held because a trusted source said it e.g. the
father, the Teacher or even Holy books such as Bible and Quran. For example, the belief that some people will
go to heaven or hell is based on the method of authority traceable to the holy
books.
Informal methods can
still be very useful in PR research but it is important that the PRE who wishes
to adopt them should appreciate and be mindful of their deficiencies. One of such deficiencies is that the
representativeness of the samples in informal research is often questionable.
In Public Relations,
the following are the commonly used informal methods, say Dominick and Wimmer
(1987) cited in (Raufu, 2014).
·
Personal contacts
·
Expert opinion
·
Community forum
·
Management/Employees Forum
·
Examination of media contents
·
Mall analysis
·
Phone-in calls etc.
FORMAL
RESEARCH
This approach is called
formal because it takes a formal course of pursuing issues thereby consequently
providing objective and systematic information from representative samples. It
is a scientific method because it “approaches learning as a series of small
steps” where one study or step or source “provides only an indication of what
may or may not be true. The truth is thus found in the accumulation and
objective analyses of series of findings.
In the process, errors can be detected and corrected as may be necessary
which means that scientific method is self-correcting (Raufu, 2014).
Here is an example,
early researchers concluded that the media were all powerful in their effects
on the audience which gave birth to the “Hypodermic Needle Theory” but
subsequent research studies debunked the thrust of this model when it was
discovered that many factors and variables would determine what the people
would do with media messages. These
researches led to the emergence of such theories as Individual Differences
Theory, Social Category Theory, Social Relations Theory etc., all of which
attempted to correct the position of the Hypodermic Needle Theory. That is the nature of Scientific Approach.
Certain features
distinguish Formal/Scientific research from Informal research. These include
the facts that:
·
Science is systematic and cumulative
·
It is objective
·
It is predictive
·
It is empirical
·
Science is public
In view of these
features, it becomes mandatory that a standard set of steps must be followed in
conducting a formal/scientific investigation.
According to Black (2011) and Raufu (2014), the steps for PR is as
stated below.
1. Statement of the problem
2. Selection of a manageable (and
measurable) portion of the problem
3. Establishing of definitions to be used
in the measurement
4. Literature review i.e. a search, in
published literature, for studies that are similar in subject or research
approach
5. Developing
a statement of hypothesis
6. Design Experiments (Define the universe
or population to be studied; choose sampling method, choose sample).
7. Data Collection
8. Data Analysis
9. Interpretation of data. Here,
inferences are drawn and generalization made.
10. Communicate result.
The next step in PR,
which is not included in normal research, is Evaluation. This helps to know how the campaign has fared
in terms of success and failure. It also
helps to expose the unexplored areas which are later explored using another
cycle of research. There are two types of formal research: Qualitative and Quantitative
Researches. The two follow the same
steps and they both can be conducted either in the laboratory or in the field.
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
This research types is
primarily based on description. It does
not make use of statistics and numbers but takes adequate care of the human
angle of the story.
Qualitative
research involves the use of the following techniques: Historiography, In-depth
Interviews and Focus group.
(i) Historiography,
Case Studies and Diaries: Whereas case studies make use of available
factual data to examine issues, events etc. Systematically, especially in
Organisations, Diaries consist of detailed reports of personal experiences and
actions which are used in field studies.
Historiography on the other hand involves collation of data from primary
and secondary sources, and organising such data to form a background for
writing Historical Narratives and Biographies.
(ii) In-depth
Interviews: In-depth interviews are conducted on specifically chosen
audience who have been selected and encouraged to talk freely and fully on the
subject. The technique is often used in motivational research which “requires
highly trained interviews and skilled analysts”. Questions to be asked are pre-tested and must
be posed to all respondents. In-depth interviews often make use of open-ended
questions because “they give up interviewer the opportunity to follow-up with
more probing questions”.
(iii) Focus
Group: Involves the interviewing of representatives of one specific group
or alternatively one representative from each of a number of different
publics. The group must converse very
freely.
There is usually a
moderator who must be a skilful interviewer, with responsibility to keep the
conversation going while he serves as the referee. The researcher records the
session on video tapes so that the interview can be used later as a prelude to
develop questionnaire. The focus group results should not be used to make final
judgement, rather is should be used as a preliminary or guidance technique.
Often focus group interviews are subjected to content analysis which ironically
is a form of Quantitative research.
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Quantitative research
is based on measurement especially by counting.
This method offers a very high degree of predictability as it is easier
to generalize from results of quantitative research to make predictions about
the larger population from which the sample was drawn.
Because many people are
afraid of statistics they tend to avoid these techniques giving the impression
that they are only suspicious of statistics because it neglects “human side of
the story”.
Quantitative measures cover the following techniques:
Content Analysis; Survey based on descriptive and Inferential Statistics
1. Content
Analysis
This technique relies
solely on reports, transcripts and or other contents of discussions,
interactions, media etc,
Bernard Berelson gave a
lucid description of content analysis when he summarized it as a research
technique for the “objective, systematic and quantitative description of the
manifest content of communication”.
Content analysis is the
systematic coding and classification of written or recorded materials for the
purpose of generating results and judgement on issues and problems. Broadcast
media transcripts, newspapers and magazine clippings, periodicals content can
be subjected to content analysis. Also, in-depth interviews, focus group
interview as w ell as transcripts of panel discussions can also be
content-analysed.
It can be used by PR
Executive for the systematic coding and classification of written and broadcast
materials that relate to his organisation.
This way, the Executive can have the knowledge of the kind of
information that his various publics are being exposed to.
2. SURVEY
This is a quantitative
research method that measures opinions, positions, preferences or practices of
a specified public with the use of tables.
Here, responses of the public are tabulated to a standardized series of
questions to assess the public’s actions and opinions.
There are two types of
survey
(i) Descriptive Survey which attempts to
describe what exists at the moment by documenting “current conditions or
attitudes”.
(ii) Analytically
Survey which attempts to explain why certain situations exist.
Survey makes use of two
types of statistics-Descriptive and inferential. While Descriptive statistics is about data in
manageable ways, inferential statistics allows the researcher to use what he had
found on the sample to draw generalizable conclusions about the population.
SURVEY
AND THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONER
Surveys can be used in
all areas of life covering science, business, politics etc., for a PR
practitioner to survey is invaluable instrument of conducting
investigation. That is why the PR
Executive must have a clear grasp of the essentials of this quantitative
research method.
These essentials
include sampling and stating research questions.
SAMPLING
A sample is a subset of
the population taken to be representative of the entire population. The process of drawing this sample is known
as sampling. Sampling is either probability or non-probability in nature.
Probability is derived
from selection “according to mathematical guidelines whereby the chance for
selection of each unit is known”. On the
other hand, non-probability sampling does not observe the rule of following
guidelines of “mathematical probability”.
Non-probability
Sampling
Because not all samples
are chose randomly, non-probability sampling can be useful even in PR
research. Branches of non-probability
sampling according to Adamu-Iria (2006) are Accidental Sampling, Purposive
Sampling and Quota Sampling and Volunteer sample. The first three major types
of non-probability sampling can be useful for a PRE who wishes to conduct
research provided any of them is appropriate for the work he intends to do
(Raufu, 2014).
Probability
Sampling
This method is based on
probability that a sample will accurately represent a particular population.
Respondents are selected for sample randomly.
This makes random sampling the most basic type of probability sampling.
The probability
sampling, every unit in the population has equal chance of being selected.
Other types of
probability sampling are Systematic Sampling; Stratified Sampling; Cluster
Sampling. They all can be useful for the PRE depending on the nature of the
research and the public involved.
Finally, it must be
noted that Cross-Section Survey and panels are the most viable processes for
gather data by sampling method while Questionnaire constitutes the best and
most used instrument.
STATING
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Raufu stated that
research questions are asked about issues that have not been deeply examined.
The difference between the two research question and Hypothesis is that whereas
research question is interested in getting answers to questions, hypothesis
attempts to make a prediction which states the researcher’s assumption of what
or what could be. When the assumption is
reversed however, to what is not or what could not be” the result is called
Null Hypothesis. Both Research Questions and Hypotheses are very good
instruments of survey method of research and a clear understanding of their
uses is required of a Public Relations Executive.
OBSERVATION
The use of observation
method in Journalism is still the same in Public Relations as stated earlier in
this work. This is a field research used for collecting data and generating
hypotheses and theories. Observation
specialises in description and explanation. Two basic types are discernible:
It could be Participant Observation in which the
researcher actively participates in the activities involved thus exposing
himself to much details of the activities of the group in which he is presently
interested.
On the other hand it
could be Non-participant Observation. Here
the researcher observes from vantage position without participating in the
activities of the subject of research. This is viable research method for
Public Relations Executive and could be used if and where it provides a good
alternative for conducting investigations.
Analyze Results
Communication
Researcher needs to determine what he wanted to learn from the study. He has
the chance to look through the diaries/logs to answer these questions. Diaries
generally contain qualitative information (e.g., how food choices were made
that day, evaluation of programs completed). Activity logs may contain several
types of information—quantitative information you can tabulate easily (e.g.,
how many people called a hotline each day, whether people picked up a brochure)
as well as qualitative information (e.g., reasons that students liked or
participated in an activity).
Analyzing Qualitative
Responses
The
best way to analyze qualitative information is to read through the information,
searching for similarities and differences between diaries. He needs to
consider all of the questions that he determined were important in the planning
phase. Once you have reviewed several diaries, you should be able to pull out
general themes or patterns from the information. The best way to analyze these
themes is to develop categories for the responses.
Analyzing
Quantitative Responses
The easiest way to analyze these types of
responses is to create a coding sheet for each quantitative question. Use a
separate sheet for each question, writing the question at the top and creating
columns for each possible response.
ROLE OF
COMPUTER/INTERNET IN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
Computer
is an electronic device that that can be used to perform virtually all human
activities. Computer technology has undergone a significant change over the
period of last five decades. The present day microcomputer is far more powerful
and cost effective compared to the world’s first computers. Computer and
internet are very useful in communication research. The use of internet for any
kind of media or communication research can reduce the time, stress, cost,
labour involved in it. Utilizing this new media can lead to quality researches.
Computers can perform calculations in just a
few seconds for which human beings would need a few days to do by hand. It can
store a lot of data and programmes in a computer storage device. Its accuracy
is consistently high. In a research process, today, researchers find it
difficult to analyse quantitative data without the use of computer. In the
information gathering stage, with computer, it is possible to collect thousands
of pages from digital libraries to internet. The internet has had a dramatic
affect on the way people communicate and disseminate information. It has also
affected the mass media research. Rogers (1986) cited in Bob and Sooknanan
(2014) claimed that the microcomputer is one of the most important innovations
of recent decades in terms of its impact in homes, schools and businesses. The
Internet, in particular, was the catalyst that catapulted the computer into a
global phenomenon.
Internet
has created new method for gathering the data in mass media research. It
changed the way researchers search for and disseminate information. According
to Sobowale (2014: 35), internet is a useful tool in the hands of social
scientists. It simplified collaboration and interaction among researchers.
Internet based research is now popular for the all categories of research. The
following are the main advantages and disadvantages given by Wimmer and Dominic
in their book. Internet surveys are easy to conduct. It is flexible in the
sense that questionnaire can be changed almost immediately if a change is
required. To collect and analyse the data it is the most cost effective method.
Respondents can proceed at their own speed and can read questions several
times, if necessary. The turnaround of results is very quick. Conducting
research through the internet can makes questionnaires to be interactive. The
internet allows access to all types of people. It requires researcher to draw
up his questionnaire and send it to the email addresses of those he wants to
answer his questions. Research projects can be replicated frequently if
necessary.
Although
internet research has become more popular and has advantages, there is the need
to consider its disadvantages in research. In term of control over the research
situation, researcher does not know who answers an internet questionnaire. It
is difficult to determine that the internet sample represents the total
universe or population or not. Many internet users are concerned with security
and refuse to participate in any type of internet research project.
IMPORTANCE OF
JOURNALISM RESEARCH
Akpan-Iquot in Etukudo (1986) stated that media
stand for the tools or channels of communication. There are different types of
media such as traditional forms, print, electronic etc. The main purpose of
this media is to provide education information and entertainment to the target
audience. To know the likings and disliking, needs and requirements of the
target audience research is of much importance for media of mass communication.
Except the public sector media, it is obvious that almost all other media
organizations are owned by private organization and profit making is the
guiding principle of the private media organizations. For offering different
media content to a heterogeneous audience, the media organizations always lay
their stress on innovative ideas and improvised ways for providing better
programme presentation that requires research. From determining the topics and
issues for reporting in the print media, selection of scoops from the
electronic news gathering, treatment of the stories of a film, use of public
relations tools, preparation and campaigning of an advertisement, markets
survey etc. in all the fields of mass communication, communication research
plays a significant role.
Akpan
posited that a democratic government cannot take any decision in a large scale
or formulate policies and programmes without conducting a research because the
result of the policies may affect the people. Likewise, as it is popularly
known as the fourth pillar of democracy, media cannot bring the attention of an
audience to a specific issue without conducting a research among the target
audience. For an investigative report a reporter must pursue a research on the
issue. For development journalism also the media organizations must conduct
some research. The relationship between public opinion and mass media on the
one hand and the democratic Government on the other should be such that the
unrepresented and underrepresented people or issues can be brought to the
attention of the government or of the society to that they can be addressed
properly.
He
explained that along with the practical aspects of the role of communication
research on mass media, the theoretical aspect is also equally important. Media
theory involves generalizing about the relationship between people or the
society and the media. Different types of media theories and research models
have been evolved from time to time. There is a media theory which is known as
cultivation theory and it was developed by George Gerbner. It states that heavy
television viewing influences people to adopt values, role and world views that
are based on television content they watch. The media managers use research to
understand what their audiences want. To decide to change their advertisers and
to develop news and information Harold Lasswell’s magic bullet theory has led
to the conclusion that media has universal and powerful effects.
Akpan
pointed out from the limited effects research, Carl Hoveland and his colleagues
found evidence for a limited effect model at the beginning of the Second World
War. According to them, media effect is specific and limited. Pluralism was a
concept ushered in by the works of Charles Horton Cooley, John Dewey and Robert
E. Park. It espoused the coexistence and cooperation among the different
elements of a power structure. They believed that a modern media could make
possible a truly democratic community. Moderate effects research started in US
in 1970’s wherein it was found that media content had a greater impact on
people’s behaviour than limited effects studies suggested, but the impact was
not as great as was found by the powerful effects researchers.
PROBLEMS
FOR THE NIGERIAN RESEARCHER
The development of research is growing at a very
slow pace in Nigeria. Many public and private organisations do not have a
research or development department. While other research areas are at low ebb,
opinion research on public issues in Nigeria is just at the starting point. According
to Black (2011), when opinion research is mentioned it includes: national and
local opinion surveys and polls, media studies, readership studies, employees
and customers attitude surveys and inventor relationship studies. Akpan-Iquot
(1986) stated the following problems of Social Research in Nigeria:
If
our research into the audience must be systematic, objective, and replicable
and randomized, there should be a measurable audience. There is the need to
have measured audiences in universities, the polytechnics, armed forces
barracks and post primary institutions where readers can be randomly sampled.
These
groups of people alone do not form the bulk of our society. The society has,
among others, drivers, carpenters, traders, painters, hoteliers, clerks,
tailors, welders, contractors to name a few. These people cannot be reached
because; most of them do not have permanent addresses. Those who do may not be
traced because the city is not planned. There are no sufficient telephones and
reliable directories as well as city directories for everyone. Hence, it is
difficult to have a measurable audience.
A
good researcher uses all segments of the society. Where a recipient of a
questionnaire is an illiterate, one cannot confidently rely on the findings
based on right thumb print. If the recipient is kind and honest enough to call
a neighbour to help complete a questionnaire, the recipient is not sure that his
responses are exactly what he intended to give. In addition, when wrong and
unreliable samples are used in research, the result cannot be reliable. The
following example indicated use of unreliable samples in research:
As
stated earlier in this work Journalism research can be carried out in virtually
every aspect of mass communications business. Since the return of power to a
democratically elected government in 1999, one can hardly locate up to a dozen
studies completed to determine the popularity or the performance of various
government programmes.
Nigerian
politicians need information as to their performance in the different
legislatures; editors need to know what type of people read their papers and
for what reasons. Besides, editors would like to know how they are performing;
whether they need to improve upon their work and what should be done about
layout and typography. As our cities are growing and becoming more complex,
they are becoming more difficult for editor to have a personal contact with his
readers, the same can be said of broadcasters, photographers or the television
personalities.
RECORDS
Another
problem of research in our society is that of inadequate or lack of record of
activities. For several weeks, certain students on a study tried to speak to
the management of some cinema houses in Calabar, Cross River State. After a lot
of run-around, the students were told that there were no weekly, monthly or
yearly records of attendance-hence, no way to determine what the trend in movie
house attendance has been. The cinema houses are by no means the only offices
with no records. In the Cross River State library, for instance, some books
have been missing for months. There are no records on who is reading what and
why.
A
recent research on employment ratio of male and female staff in Nigerian higher
institutions was delayed for months as a result of inadequate records in those
institutions. It took Lagos state polytechnic and Yaba College of Technology
months to produce sketchy records of their staff according to gender.
POLITICAL AND ETHNIC
CONSCIOUSNESS
In
a country of high rate of illiteracy and high degree of ethnic loyalty, a
researcher is bound to run into obstacles if questionnaires are feared to have
come from a potential “enemy camp”. Admittedly, this statement is based on
observation rather than research. But all that interests a scholar is not who
is winning against whom. Rather, the researcher is interested in relationships
in order to predict future trends.
EXPENSIVE TO FINANCE
Research
work is usually expensive-even after the funds have been made available; there
is no guarantee that the findings will be altogether pleasant to the sponsors.
Researchers in mass communications are going to need support. The support must
come from the federal and state governments to institutions of higher learning.
Philanthropic organisations, business establishments, religious organisations
are also required to contribute to encouraging researches in the field of mass
communications.
Social research involves a huge amount of money;
therefore, inadequacy of funds to bankroll social research project is another
bane militating against the progress of research in our environment. Ignorant n
of the role or little or lack of appreciation of the role of social research in
nation building is another major block in the road to stardom in social
research. In addition, over confidence and complacency of do or die politicians
with the exploitation of the general masses through rigging of elections at
every level in concomitant with little or absence of opposition is a crucial
factor responsible for lack of attention to opinion research by the sitting
government or politicians (Tejumaiye, 2003).
Tejumaiye stated further that since the inception of
tertiary education in Nigeria, opinion research as an academic discipline has
just begun in social sciences faculties of different institutions. The results
of social research are very tentative and as a result it is not easy to
convince users of such research results to invest their money on an exercise
which may not yield fruit immediately.
Tejumaiye added that long years of military rule
between 1966 to 1979 and 1984 to 1999, penchant for foreign products and
programmes are the major reasons accounted for little or lack of interest in
opinion research. The Nigerian military rule the country without regard for
peoples’ opinion. Opinion of the public did not matter to them. They rolled out
Draconian decree to deal with social issues and this resulted in
maladministration from one military regime to the other.
Social scientists normally faced
some challenges regarding analysis and presentation of qualitative results
arising from interpretative methods, such as in-depth interviews, participant
observation and group discussions. Diverse strategies, such as case studies and
the presentation of verbatim reports, are regularly utilised to convey results.
These have the merit of highlighting the significant themes and patterns
identified and set by the researcher(s).
PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE
The
objective of this study was to point out different methods of carrying out
journalism and public opinion research. If there is going to be some beginning,
it must be now. There is no need to wait to have 99 per cent of literacy before
embarking on research studies or wait to line our pockets with money or wait to
have totally planned cities before launching research work. As much as we may
not be able to carry out a highly representative study, research can start with
on-the-spot interviews.
Research
can start with what Kurt and Gladys Lang call “fire-house research” in the
field of communications. In this type of study, volunteers are selected and
sent to the scene of an event. The interview can be pre or post-event. The
microscopic examinations of the impact of the event on the citizens can assure
the public that media practitioners can do more than just reporting events.
Another kind of research that can be conducted at present is readership
studies. Although the first set of respondents would be frightened, a
re-assurance would be enough to encourage them to return to questionnaire Akpan-Iquot in Etukudo (1986).
The
complicated studies, such as experimental, two-step linkage, what have you been
thinking, studio laboratory observation or minute-by-minute
push-the-button-response can be practiced on our colleges and universities. In
order to produce a high level of reliability, applicability and validity, the
communications researchers of the future must maintain a non-questionable,
unbiased, scientific and representative research finding. The media
practitioner in Nigeria who is interested in research will definitely
experience problems. But all human endeavours are fraught with challenges. The
future has prospects for those who will venture.
SUMMARY
Public
Relations Programme Planning requires a lot of
research at every stage. Research facilitates the PRE’s plans as it provides a
clear vision for and understanding of the where to focus all his activities.
Public Relations research is used as a means of surveillance to identify PR
problems; to plan to proffer solutions to such problems, to communicate the
solutions and other planned programmes, and finally to evaluate the success or
otherwise of the executed programme. It is also used to secure management
support for PR activities, functions and policies.
Wimmer and Dominick
(1987:363) noted that the most common use of research in Public Relations is to
gather data or audience attitude and opinions. Such survey are often conducted
before, during and after a Public Relations campaign, (adding however that)
Public Relations research is often conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a
planned communication programme.
Dominick and Wimmer
citing Cutlip, Centre and Broom (1985) in Raufu (2014) noted that “informal and
exploratory methods are still widely used in Public Relations research despite
the availability of highly developed social science methods”.
These methods can still
be very useful but is essential that the PRE who wishes to use them, “recognise
and appreciate” their weaknesses, most important of which is the
questionability of the representatives of the samples.
Cutlip Centre and Broom
cited in (Raufu, 2014) went further to enumerate five Public Relations research
categories as:
·
Environmental Monitoring Programmes
·
Public Relations Audit
·
Communication Audit
·
Social Audit and
·
Evaluation Research
Crediting the first
four PR research types of Lerbinger (1977), Dominick and Wimmer explain the
points as follows:
·
Environmental
Monitoring Programme is very suitable for monitoring trends,
public opinions and other social events that may supply information upon which
they success, failure, effectiveness or ineffectiveness of a recently concluded
community relations programme can be measured.
It is the act of keeping on ear to the ground and borrowing the eagle
eye.
·
Public
Relations Audit: This is an attempt to consider
comprehensive list of all the segments that are important to a just-concluded
campaign with a view to having personal interview with key personalities
amongst them. Those interviewed must be
people that could supply unguarded or untailored information that the
researcher can process to test the extent of success or failure recorded, if
any, with regards to any given communication programme.
·
Communication
Audit involves taking intensive and extensive look at the
internal and external means of communication that the organisation used with a
view to ascertaining their effectiveness or otherwise.
Whereas Social Audit is
a microcosm of environmental monitoring programmes Evaluation Research attempts
to do overall appraisal of the entire programme to be able to measure the level
of success or otherwise.
Analysis of the news
contents, editorial comments, features and opinion articles of the local
newspapers should be carefully and thoroughly done. So also should efforts be made to monitor
programme contents and comments in the electronic media. Not only should organisations take
broadcasters’ comments about its products or services with seriousness, the
managers should be smart enough to note that such comments would represent the
views and opinions of thousands of people and can even help to mould or
re-mould their thinking and perception about the firm thereby helping to
reposition it appropriately.
Conclusion
While
methods may be classified as quantitative or qualitative, most methods contain
elements of both. For example, qualitative data analysis often involves a
fairly structured approach to coding the raw data into systematic information,
and quantifying intercoder reliability. Thus, there is often a more complex
relationship between "qualitative" and "quantitative"
approaches than would be suggested by drawing a simple distinction between
them.
Social
scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of
social phenomena. Research can be conducted using surveys, reports,
observation, questionnaire, focus groups, historical accounts, personal diaries
and census statistics. There are two types of research: qualitative research
and quantitative research. Qualitative research is inductive, meaning the
researcher creates hypotheses and abstractions from collected data. Most data
is collected via words or pictures and mostly from people. Researchers are
interested in how people make sense of their lives and in the research process
itself. Quantitative research is the complete opposite and most often involves
numbers and set data. Quantitative data is efficient but focuses only on the
end result, not the process itself, as qualitative research does.
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Communication Research Methods in Journalism and Public Relations
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